This presentation describes the added fire risk with solid fuel commercial cooking of creosote formation and deposition in exhaust hoods and ducts. The presentation discusses the physical and fire properties of creosote, and through selected case studies, will discuss the issues of detection, activation, and suppression with conventional fire suppression systems. This presentation also previews hybrid and newer technology fire systems with electronic monitoring, detection and actuation, suppression with unlimited water and surfactant, along with backup power supply and communication with building management systems.

Fire hazards in commercial kitchens include ignition source, flame spread, as well as heat transmission concerns. Proper design, installation, and maintenance of kitchen exhaust ducts is critical to the performance and safety of the kitchen ventilation system. Considerations include access for cleaning and maintenance, proper slope, clearances to combustible construction, and reduced clearance protective assemblies. The latest UL 710 Standard for kitchen hoods has incorporated specific testing requirements for insulation, which allows for reduced clearance to combustible materials. Duct systems must also meet clearance requirements, which involves field-installed fire wrap, as well as pre-insulated double wall ducts evaluated to UL Standard 2221.

Property loss in the commercial foodservice industry remains huge, commonly results in civilian and fire fighter injury, and most often can be directly traced to the cooking area where food product was the first material ignited. The wide array of effluent handling equipment must be engineered for the specific equipment employed. The inspection and the maintenance procedures must be an ongoing measure to properly control flammable cooking byproduct, and must be conducted by properly trained and qualified persons.

This study shows the impact of common commissioning faults on the energy consumption of an air-to-air heat pump installed in a single-family house. Through annual simulations of the house/heat pump system, the study found that duct leakage, refrigerant undercharge, oversized heat pump with nominal ductwork, low indoor airflow due to undersized ductwork, and refrigerant overcharge have the most potential for causing significant performance degradation and increased annual energy consumption. Energy use increased significantly from lowering the thermostat setting in the cooling mode to improve indoor comfort in cases of excessive indoor humidity levels due to installation faults.

Complete physics-based models of vapor-compression refrigeration equipment can be difficult and time-consuming to produce. A gray-box model uses a mix of physics and measurement data to simplify the modeling process. Gray box models have recently been produced that are capable of accurately modeling the effects of all common faults on the performance of the system. This seminar describes the new approach, and show the results and conclusions from the modeling.

Air-side economizers are commonly used in most locations to reduce the cooling load when outdoor conditions are suitable. However, several field studies have shown that economizer faults, such as a stuck damper, are quite common. For small rooftop units, the cost of supplying an economizer can return a slow payback in some locations, and when faults occur, the economizer may not ever pay off. This study simulated the cost outcome using probabilities of faults from field studies to examine the cost-effectiveness of economizers for typical buildings in several climates, to determine payback period, if any.

Air-side economizers are commonly used in most locations to reduce the cooling load when outdoor conditions are suitable. However, several field studies have shown that economizer faults, such as a stuck damper, are quite common. For small rooftop units, the cost of supplying an economizer can return a slow payback in some locations, and when faults occur, the economizer may not ever pay off. This study simulated the cost outcome using probabilities of faults from field studies to examine the cost-effectiveness of economizers for typical buildings in several climates, to determine payback period, if any.

Building construction has gone for tremendous changes during the last decade. With the improvement in quality of life, earnings, living style, the building construction methodology and construction materials have been modified to suit the life style of people. The art of living has changed and human comfort is given a lot of importance. With the increase in electronic gadgets in the houses along with air conditioning system energy consumption becomes enormous. This paper highlights different insulation materials along with application specifications and confirmation to local Green Standards or Energy Codes in India.

Saudi Arabia has been in rapid growth in recent years which resulted in electricity consumption growth. Air-conditioners (A/Cs) are responsible for 50% of the electricity consumption due to hot weather conditions as well as the delay in implementing A/Cs performance standards. One of the challenges is that most of the installed A/Cs in existing buildings are old and have been installed before regulations and standards on A/Cs specifications were enforced in 2013. Renewing old A/Cs with new and efficient ones would reduce electricity consumption, benefiting building owners as well as utility companies.

Buildings consume more than 40% of energy in the U.S. Effectively and efficiently managing and controlling building energy and mechanical systems for a sustainable built environment remains a critical challenge. Studies shows intelligent building controls enable a greater than 20% energy savings in specific buildings, accounting for 2% of national energy consumption. Even small improvements in control system logic can make significant changes in energy savings over the course of a year or longer. How to develop, test and evaluate controller performances is crucial for scalable deployment of these control logics including load controls and distributed control solutions.

In a hospitality building, guests’ presence ratio (%) in the room is low due to the varying schedule and needs (business, shopping, sightseeing etc.) of individual guests. So, the energy consumption can be reduced during guests’ absence by turning the HVAC off for the room, but it can cause discomfort to the guest when they come back to the room. So it poses trade-off problems to maintain the comfort for the user and reduces the energy consumption at the same time in a hospitality building. This paper proposes an algorithm to solve the above-mentioned problem.

Religious facilities throughout the world are unique in their operation compared to other types of commercial buildings. Due to their lower energy intensity, these buildings rarely are the recipients of traditional energy studies or assessments. This paper presents highlights from a long-term energy study of two architecturally-identical churches located in different climates. Data were collected from over 130 sensors over an 18-month time period. This paper discusses how religious facilities differ from other types of commercial buildings in regards to occupancy, lighting, HVAC usage, and comfort.

There’s no shortage of available software applications and tools that can be leveraged to identify savings opportunities in buildings. The challenge is identifying which tool types are appropriate and what data is useful for the variety of needed building assessments that range from simple benchmarking to fault detection/auditing or advanced statistical analysis. This presentation provides an overview of a software environment developed to leverage the relative strengths of some energy analytics, workflow management, and visualization tools to identify savings opportunities, quantify savings impacts, and support an ongoing commissioning process in actual facilities.

The Smart Data Center Energy Expert System is a continuous monitoring, control and analytics platform developed by the needs of modem data centers for down time prevention powered by latest IoT and cloud technologies. The expert-system approach enables fast and accurate identification of environmental trends along with comprehensive and cost effective energy efficiency recommendations, boosts adoption of energy saving measures and automatic CRAC controls. The all-in-one system significantly simplifies and standardizes savings estimation and verification and effectively sustains and improves the savings over time for medium to large data centers.

Due to the requirements of national energy policy, more than 10,000 public and commercial buildings in China installed sub-meters in the last eight years. Energy audit and retro-commissioning were also performed on these buildings. EMS platform that can track and perform analysis on data collected from sub-meters and BAS is becoming essential for analyzing system operation, identifying system issues and faults , and uncovering energy cost-saving opportunities. This presentation introduces an advanced EMS platform used for automatic data collection and archiving, data calibration, energy benchmarking, equipment and system operation performance analysis, energy and operation fault alerting and measurement & verification.

Demand based control, variable exhaust fan controls, heat recovery, etc. have significant impact on saving energy in labs. Building a holistic model of these systems , when these approaches interact with each other can be a challenge. An energy analysis tool was developed to address these concerns. This presentation discusses this energy analysis tool that measures actual savings of completed projects. Case studies showing the energy savings modeled compared with actual airflow savings and energy performance is presented. Lessons learned is also presented, explaining why some of these lab projects were not initially achieving their energy savings.

This presentation discusses actual projects implementing wind responsive VAV exhaust systems for laboratories. It also addresses the steps to ensure a safe operation of the VAV controls.

This presentation discusses the differences between modeled building energy performance and actual consumption. Limitations of modeling software and engineering assumptions are included. Differences between modeling existing buildings and new buildings is also presented. The discussion includes common areas of difference between models and actual performance.

Energy and resource conservation can only be achieved if building systems are operated and maintained the way they were designed and commissioned. Operations and maintenance (O&M) is usually given the least priority globally, including in Pakistan. What needs to be included in design, construction and commissioning phases in relation to O&M? What is an O&M team and their duties? How should effective O&M can be executed? How can effective O&M enhance the service life of equipment, as well as energy and resources conservation? Lastly, what metrics can be used to note and keep track of a well-executed O&M program?

The relationship between architect and engineer has evolved as sustainable design has gained importance. The design process between the team is less hierarchical and much more collaborative. Beyond the team’s reliance on engineers for technical expertise, they must also have a broader understanding of a project’s goals, as their input has a much greater impact than before. Today, the process of engineer more closely reflects the process of architecture, each relying on the other. Understanding the importance of integrating HVAC design and building envelope strategies into the early stages of the design process creates a synergy within architecture and engineering.

Every project and owner is unique. Some buildings are set out with goals to have the greenest building in the world while others are simply trying to provide adequate thermal comfort. There is a fine line between providing an adequate system while encouraging an owner towards an energy efficient design. And when and how do you bring the facilities engineer into the design process? This presentation covers how to present and tailor HVAC system design options to the owner, design team and facilities group, while addressing energy use concerns, architectural aesthetics, acoustical criteria, and operations and maintenance preferences.

Often the commissioning process is an after-thought that gets addressed when code compliance or LEED requirements are addressed. It is seen as a means to an ends instead of a key component of a high performance project. Through early integration of commissioning into the design process, projects experience reduced energy use, lower operating costs, reduced contractor callbacks, and verification that the systems perform in accordance with the owner’s requirements. Projects can only succeed when designers, energy analysts, contractors, owners and operators all understand the project goals, and commissioning is one of the most effective ways to bring all parties together.

The most important key of true project success is a high performance team that communicates effectively and constantly tracks its goals. The design must be benchmarked throughout each phase of the project, including post occupancy. Working hand in hand with the design team, owner and facilities group allows the energy analyst to predict an Energy Utilization Index value which is reflective of future building conditions. And after a year of occupancy, a carefully thought out measurement and verification process will reveal the team’s successes and shortcomings.

According to some experts, smart, interconnected building technologies are the next major step in the evolution of buildings. With the increase of the prevalence of the “Internet of Things” and the falling costs of sensors and wireless technology, the smart building technology and implementation market has a huge potential. Yet, changing an industry doesn’t happen overnight. Proponents of smart buildings must still overcome a number of obstacles before smart buildings become ubiquitous, including barriers with safety (cybersecurity), technology (interoperability), and humanity (acceptance).

Realizing the economic and environmental benefits of energy-efficient building designs requires attentive and well-informed operation. Providing real-time feedback to occupants and operators about actual energy use is a powerful tool in pursuit of this goal. However, without context, this feedback can be unhelpful or even misleading. Control limits contextualize feedback by establishing reasonable ranges for the reported data that are tailored to a building’s unique characteristics. This presentation is an introduction to two related methods of establishing control limits for building energy consumption using a combination of predictive modeling, historical data analysis, and energy-conservative logic.

Commissioning consists of systematically documenting that specified components and systems have been installed and started up properly and then functionally tested to verify that systems are complete and functioning properly upon project completion. Proper functional performance test development plays a big role in the success of commissioning. The intent of this portion of the seminar is to present various means & methods for functional performance testing. Means and methods such as control modification, injection, stimulation and actual event will be discussed in depth.

Energy performance indices are used around the world to evaluate and monitor residential and commercial building energy performance during design, construction, renovation, and operation. Building energy performance is sensitive to the engineered system, O&M practices, and occupant needs, each of which are largely independent factors requiring more than one index to describe and manage the building’s energy performance. This presentation analyzes the merits and weaknesses of common indices and introduces the O&M Index, which is the ratio of the energy consumption at the meter to the simulated energy performance, calibrated for the actual operating conditions of the building.

A recent study of Airport Terminal Buildings by the Airport Cooperative Research Program revealed that traditional Energy Use Indices (EUIs) do not fully explain the differences in the energy use characteristics of Airport Terminal Buildings (ATBs). To resolve this issue new indices were developed and demonstrated that more accurately account for the special systems in ATBs. This presentation presents the findings of this effort, including the new Energy Use (EU) indicators and preliminary results of the application of the ATB EUs to selected airports in the U.S.

Experience with the Energy Rating Index (ERI) score as a building energy performance metric indicates that home geometry and operating assumptions play a significant role in resulting scores. All other things equal, as home size increases it becomes easier to achieve lower scores. The number of bedrooms and number of stories also impact scores. This presentation highlights the magnitude of the disparities caused by each of these factors in high performance zero energy ready homes. It also provides details on a set of Index Adjustment Factors that account for these impacts and significantly reduce disparities in the revised ERI calculation.

This presentation addresses the technical feasibility of meeting the Architecture 2030 challenge based on recent analysis, including ASHRAE research on the maximum technical potential for achieving low energy buildings (RP-1651), and the on-site renewable energy production potential for typical climates. ASHRAE and many other societies and governmental organizations have adopted the Architecture 2030 challenge which calls for new buildings to be zero net-energy (ZNE) by the year 2030. This seminar addresses the technical feasibility of meeting this challenge based on

This presentation compares data from measured energy performance (utility bills) of recently constructed ZNE buildings to the targets determined through modeling. Areas of agreement as well as the gaps will be explored.

Many ASHRAE Standards Have become building codes. Contractors and Design Build Engineers apply these standards to their projects. HVAC Hydronice systems construction often reveals a lack of awareness and understanding of basic sections. This workshop takes a common sense approach to specific sections of 90.1 and others that have a direct impact on Waterside construction and design. The goal is to approach this from a real world perspective explaining why they are needed from an energy and health standpoint.

Design build contractors make a lot of decisions and sometimes the decisions they make have far reaching impacts on system performance and energy consumption. This short presentation is informative to attendees.

Modern buildings designed for certification under green building rating systems are commonly rated high based on their predicted energy performance. In many cases, their actual performance deviates from the prediction. The discrepancy can be attributed to the difference between the assumptions made in the building design and the actual operating conditions. It is important to identify robust designs that perform consistently even under varying conditions. This presentation proposes a design approach that incorporates risk assessment for multiple design aspects into an energy performance evaluation workflow. The approach will help mitigate design bias in conventional design approaches.

This seminar considers the Glorya Kaufman International Dance Center at the University of Southern California LA project that was handed over in summer 2016. Working with the demanding, yet knowledgeable, technical facilities team the fully connected MEP BIM systems model was developed employing equipment manufacturers' BIM components with data rich component information. As well as delivering design detail the BIM provided record drawings with commissioning data and drastically reduced the RFIs compared the traditional design flow. The BIM model will be maintained by the on-site facilities team and updated to manage maintenance and to inform future refurbishment work.

This presentation sets out a methodology that resets the traditional brute force approach applied in North American venue HVAC design and develops a performance based solution focusing on the wellness and comfort of the attending fans, the venue flexibility and the environmental footprint. This has been applied to the home of the Sacramento Kings professional basketball team that opened for the 2017 NBA season and aims to be the world's most sustainable arena providing fans with the most comfortable and well connected environment. The novel 'fan oriented' design process will be discussed that utilized advanced simulation and building prototyping techniques.

Assessment procedures, schemes and initiatives will be discussed which result in buildings which perform well in practice, and perform as modelled. The concept of design, and modelling for performance is explored along with schemes and processes which do or do not include these features. The characteristics of schemes which have been effective in this way are identified along with a relevant technical aspect - modelling - and a procedural aspect - the nature of the performance prediction or guarantee. Examples of projects are used to illustrate features, and current developments described along with suggestions for further development.

Owing to the development of radiant heating/cooling systems and personal ventilation, a new trend has arisen where heat is dissipated to several independent areas, providing custom heat loads; this allows the possibility of creating a zero heating/cooling load environment, i.e., it allows us to deal with the heat load from each heat source before the heat diffuses into the space. This solution enables us to utilize lower level heat sources such as chilled water at high temperatures and heat at a low temperature. It also ensures more uniform temperature distribution and a more comfortable Personal Microenvironment with improved energy efficiency.

Significant HVAC energy savings can be achieved by widening the thermostat setpoint range and providing local thermal management to restore occupant comfort. This is achieved through the use of an efficient 50-60 W personal environmental control system designed for the thermal management of the personal microenvironment. Specifically, we analyze the performance of a micro environmental control system that increases occupant’s sensible heat loss in a room maintained at 79F in the summer, and reduces occupant’s heat loss in a room maintained at 66F in the winter. CFD is employed to assess the system performance under different operating conditions.

The characteristics of the personal micro-environment, consisting of the thermal plume, clothing, gap between skin and clothing, and respiration, will be defined. The importance of free convection around the body and its interaction with external flows, clothing and the resulting heat- and mass transfer for thermal comfort and inhaled air quality will be outlined. The benefit arising from measurement and control of the micro-environment, in terms of sensing body physiological signals, improving people’s thermal comfort and inhaled air quality, reduction of exposure to airborne infectious agents and energy saving will be demonstrated by several methods that are applicable in practice.

In this seminar, the speaker gives a brief introduction of the human thermal plume dominated zone (HTPDZ) around the human body created by the human thermal plume. He then addresses the negative and positive role of the HTPDZ on the contaminant cross transmission between person to person. He will also use examples to explain how the HTPDZ affects the contaminant cross transmission under different conditions, contaminant cross transmission in vertical unidirectional ventilated protective isolation environment and aircraft cabin environment.

Falke – Performance Approach

While most maintenance agreements include a checklist that insinuates acceptable performance, little evidence is provided that verifies how well the installed system is functioning. Emerging technology offers a scoring method that includes key performance indicators that can be field measured during each maintenance visit. Any change in this data can pinpoint changes in the performance of the system and allow for immediate surgical repairs to the system

Maintenance programs with no requirement to collect measured performance data run great risk to customer satisfaction and achieving utility savings goals. It has become clear that even the most well maintained systems are often not efficient at all. This is due to past maintenance programs only focusing on the equipment on the roof versus the system as a whole. Adding technologies to maintenance programs has proven to produce fewer saving than anticipated because existing undetected system degradation prohibited the technology to function as designed, reducing savings throughout the life of the system.

By documenting several key metrics at the time of commissioning or retro-commissioning, the performance of a system can be benchmarked. The benchmarks can then be used for a variety of purposes including comparison to manufacturer data, tracking performance degradation over time, and diagnostics. Creating and affixing a label to the equipment with commissioning data and space for ongoing data recording provides a record that is accessible to any personnel who may service the unit. Details of the metrics and proposed commissioning label are provided.

A model-based real-time whole building energy monitoring and diagnostics is presented. The proposed system continuously acquires performance measurements of HVAC, lighting and plug load usage from the Building Energy Management System (BEMS) and compares these measurements in real-time to a calibrated reference EnergyPlus model. The structure of categories for extracted data and model outputs is described, along with discussion of adjustments necessary to EnergyPlus reporting and set up of BEMS trending. A proof of concept demonstration is presented.

Model-based performance monitoring requires comparison of data generated from two distinct kinds of system, the Building Energy Model (BEM) and the Building Automation System (BAS). The HVAC design process at present places no requirement for interoperability between them. In the performance monitoring use-case, they will no longer be stand-alone elements. ASHRAE Guideline 20-2010 Documenting HVAC&R Work Processes for Data Exchange Requirements provides a use-case approach to information issues. The Guideline 20 process is applied to BEM-BAS data comparisons to better understand where incompatibilities lie. Examples are developed such as equipment naming, operating profiles, energy and physical parameters.

Recent progress in BIM to BEM for energy analysis has proven to be effective for early design analysis and parametric evaluations of design options. Several cloud-based simulation strategies have been developed for auto-tuning and model calibration using utility billing data. This presentation summarizes an approach integrating BIM to BIM and cloud-based parametric simulations for developing calibrated energy models from BIM using site specific weather data. It is possible to use the calibrated model in conjunction with parametric design analysis for evaluating retrofit opportunities. Examples are presented to dynamically evaluate retrofit options without performing additional simulations.

Buildings in cities consume 30 to 70% of cities’ total primary energy. Planning and evaluating retrofit strategies for buildings requires a deep understanding of the physical characteristics, operating patterns, and energy use of the building stock. This talk introduces a web-based data and computing platform, City Building Energy Saver (CityBES), which focuses on energy modeling and analysis of a city’s building stock to support district or city-scale efficiency programs. CityBES uses an international open data standard, CityGML, to represent and exchange 3D city models. CityBES targets urban planners, city energy managers, building owners, utilities, energy consultants and researchers.

Urban planners use simulation analysis for making long term infrastructure investment and policy decisions based on things like population, income, real estate values, accessibility, and protection of open space and the environment. However, building energy use is rarely part of that planning process. This talk describes demographics, economic process, land use regulation, real estate markets and transportation systems for building energy model tools to assess impact of policy on future building energy use and carbon footprints can be easily determined along with the effects of building energy use on the value of real estate, population, and business economics.

High humidity can be a problem. It’s uncomfortable and it’s a mold risk factor. ASHRAE and ACCA load calculation procedures provide equations to estimate dehumidification loads in residential buildings. But sometimes, it’s instructive to measure the loads in real, occupied houses, rather than just estimating them. The same goes for dehumidification performance of AC units. Measurements from occupied houses and apartments in Europe and the US suggest that both ASHRAE and ACCA load calculations greatly underestimate actual residential dehumidification loads.

Performance contractors sometimes say: "In God we trust... all others bring data". Shasta, California has a climate with sensible cooling and heating degree-days similar to those of Chicago. But in our dry climate, we can heat a three-bedroom, 2,400 ft2 house with less heat than a hair dryer, and cool it using one (1) ton per 1,200 ft sq. The data shows comfortable temperatures by using low-cost, constant-volume, low-SEER cooling equipment. The secret is relevant in-process installation measurements, combined with the unusual practice of actually following design guidelines known for decades to be best practices.

The purpose of this article is to first define traditional social relations of a facility project, from design to demo, and to then reflect how those existing affairs have been affected by this new member to the built association. By focusing on the human relationship to the built environment, the author hopes to promote better project communications; once again from design to demo, among all stake-holders. In order to truly support Green Agendas, as an industry we need to promote and support the relationship between engineering system parameters and those who are ultimately challenged with maintaining those parameters.

A virtual in-situ sensor calibration method has been recently studied in order to solve the practical problems of sensor calibration in building energy systems: (1) time and monetary cost; (2) disruption to a normal operation; (3) difficulty in accessing various embedded sensors in equipment; and (4) large quantity of sensors. The proposed in-situ calibration method is able to approximate the measure and establish benchmark values for a calibration statistically or by using system models, without removing the working sensor or adding reference sensors as in a conventional calibration.

Condensation control of thermal bridges has always been a major concern of designers. In building envelope details, highly heat conductive materials and poor thermal insulations create thermal bridging. Condensation occurs when indoor air hits the cold surface of thermal bridging area which is below dewpoint temperature. Condensation could lead to surface staining, mold growth and deterioration of sensitive materials. The goal of this paper is to develop a catalogue and guidelines that allow designers to verify the condensation resistance of selected balconies in different climate zones, and meet ASHRAE and LEED standards and local codes.

A paradigm shift is coming in how buildings interact with the utility grid. Dramatic drops in the price of PV panels has spurred the rise of the “prosumer” (Producer and Consumer): buildings that necessitate a two-way grid interaction. This, plus a renewed focus on energy efficiency, is driving the mainstream adoption of Net Zero Energy (NZE) buildings – a good thing, certainly. However, some important details remain unresolved. As more of these buildings of the future come online it is increasingly critical to make sure that the buildings are good grid citizens and are solving more problems than they create.

Infrared thermography is a nondestructive technology that can help identify building envelope issues such as wet areas and lack of or inadequate insulation in building envelopes invisible to the human eye. When conducted at the right time of night infrared (IR) inspections can determine which materials are wet or in contact with wet materials and which are dry. This is possible because water has a high specific heat, which means that it stores heat well and cools down more slowly than common roofing materials.

In anticipation of both climate change and global urbanization, we conduct research of microclimate impacts on energy systems. Researchers analyze and quantify the relationships among modeled and measured climatic conditions, urban morphology, land cover and energy use; and use these relationships to inform energy-efficient urban development and planning. Researchers apply i) neighborhood resolution modeling and simulation of urban micrometeorological processes; ii) projections informed by microclimate for future energy use under different urbanization and climate change scenarios; to produce iii) analysis and visualization tools to help planners optimally use these projections to identify best strategies for energy-efficient urban morphological development.

While building energy modeling (BEM) is most widely used for building design, there are several other important applications of BEM. These include building energy code development, energy efficiency policy development, utility integrated resource planning and demand side management modeling, design, and implementation support. This seminar presents case studies of application of BEM, specifically Urban Building Energy Modeling (UBEM), for utility analytics.

With the advent of easily created urban scale reality models, creating Urban Building Energy Models (UBEM) has never been easier. This presentation demonstrates how an UBEM can be used to visualize and report on building energy consumption at urban scale. By combining building energy benchmark data with an urban scale reality mesh, users can quickly classify, visualize and report urban building energy consumption. This virtual navigation of the City of Philadelphia demonstrates how UBEM can be used to measure, analyze and report readily available benchmark data.

Recent literature suggests substantial energy savings and comfort improvements are possible from strategies that bring human preferences into the building operations and controls loop, using either direct, real-time occupant feedback; passive feedback through proxy occupant sensors; or a hybrid of these approaches. This presentation discusses BTO’s recently launched R&D effort at Department of Energy and supporting activities in the context of the current state-of-the-art in occupant-centered sensing and controls, and also outlines the place of this research area in the larger R&D vision for the BTO Sensors and Controls program.

Transactive energy is trying to control energy production, distribution and consumption based on economic signals. To have a more competitive market, all involving parties have to participate in this market, including residential buildings. Dynamic electricity pricing is one solution to attract residential building to interact with this market. However, residential buildings' energy management systems are not responsive to electricity price changes. The focus of this research is to utilize energy use flexibilities in residential buildings, to make them more responsive to economic signals.

The history leading up to the formation of the Residential Ad Hoc Committee (Now the Residential Building Committee), including why ASHRAE needed to do something, the charge to the ad hoc, and what it accomplished. The session includes a discussion of the ad hoc's activities regarding the role that ASHRAE has played, could play, and should play with respect to the residential HVAC and construction market.

This presentation highlights ASHRAE standards relevant to the residential market sector. The discussion includes an overview of the residential portion of Standard 100. It also summarizes key elements of Standard 62.2, and the new residential green building standard jointly published by ICC and ASHRAE.

ASHRAE's Grassroots Government Advocacy Committee educates local, state, provincial, and national government bodies and officials in areas of interest to ASHRAE members, targeted toward sound government policies for sustainable practices and reduced carbon emissions associated with the HVAC equipment and systems in the building sector. This presentation describes ongoing and planned efforts by the committee to obtain and disseminate key residential sector information to government agencies. This includes a series of Public Policy Issue Briefs intended for distribution to government officials and others with limited technical expertise, but who would benefit from information regarding ASHRAE and its activities.

This presentation shines the light of truth on airflow in poorly installed residential flexible ducts. Advertised airflow data is based on ASHRAE Standard 120 testing, which is a valid test protocol, but not reflective of actual performance in field installed flexible ducts. A new ASHRAE Duct Size Calculator (now available from ASHRAE Publications) is also described.

Before flex duct showed up on the scene, rigid sheet metal ducts dominated forced air distribution systems. Hard-pipe systems aren’t as common now, but they’re still effective and useful. They can be more durable and efficient than flex and fiberglass ductboard when designed and installed properly. Presented are some best practices to follow when designing, installing, and commissioning hard-pipe ducts systems.

This presentation focuses on hydronics, the original ductless systems as alternatives to ducted systems in residential applications. It provides an overview of converting sensible cooling and heating loads into flow rates, how and why to pick pipes based on velocity and head loss; and how to best distribute the flows to enable occupants to sense and perceive thermal comfort without ductwork.

This presentation summarizes the results of a four year study on quality installation issues: the effect of installation errors (e.g., leaky duct, improper refrigerant charge, oversized equipment, incorrect air flow, etc.) on the performance of residential unitary equipment; the extent that operational deviations are significant; whether the deviations (when combined) have an additive effect on equipment efficiency; and whether some deviations are affected by geographical/climatic differences. With an understanding of this information, field personnel are better positioned to focus attention, resources, and remediation effort on the varied design, installation, and maintenance practices in the HVAC sector.

The Unites States has the highest building energy use and greenhouse gas emissions per capita in the world. The European Union has much lower use per capita, and the United Kingdom has had one of the fastest declines since 2000. Energy efficient materials and products, building codes and overall energy policy are driving reductions in the UK and other European countries. This presentation highlights the steps taken in Europe to reduce energy consumption, including deep retrofit strategies and incremental options with large market uptake for overall large impact, that can be applied cost-effectively to North American homes.

The Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) is the only nationally representative data on energy consumption and energy-related characteristics in U.S. commercial buildings. The most recent data from the 2012 CBECS show that, compared to previous CBECS, commercial buildings are becoming larger and are consuming less energy per square foot, a larger share of electricity, and less energy for space heating and lighting. This presentation presents highlights from the 2012 CBECS and discusses innovative plans for the upcoming 2017 CBECS. It also describes ways in which ASHRAE members can contribute to the planning process for the next CBECS.

EPA uses the CBECS survey to develop the ENERGY STAR score for commercial buildings, which is made available through EPA’s Portfolio Manager. Numerous states and localities use Portfolio Manager to collect a building’s ENERGY STAR score and other metrics through benchmarking and disclosure laws. As the market moves towards greater disclosure, it is important to maintain simplicity and consistency in how we communicate building performance. This presentation explores new ways to view national data in a local context, opportunities to leverage city and state-level data for analysis, and mechanisms for public sharing of data within Portfolio Manager.

In addition to the thousands of buildings that are voluntarily benchmarking, there are now 18+ cities, counties and states that have passed requirements for buildings to benchmark their performance each year and make this information publicly available. These policies are giving building owners, tenants, and policy makers unprecedented access to actual building performance data in their market. This presentation provides an update on these policies across the U.S., examines how local jurisdictions are using the data to motivate building owners to improve the energy efficiency of their properties and discusses the lessons learned and challenges ahead for these programs.

RP-1404 developed analysis methodologies by which the time period for field monitoring of energy use in buildings can be reduced to less than a whole year while satisfying preset accuracy levels of annual energy performance verification. The seminar presents the methodology of investigating the capabilities and the limits of hybrid inverse models developed from the shortest monitoring periods possible for a reliable and accurate long-term energy performance prediction in large commercial buildings. Such methodologies would be of great benefit to high performance buildings, and to Energy Service Companies who need a more cost-effective and acceptable alternative to year-long monitoring.

The hourly hybrid multivariate change point approach aimed at predicting building energy consumption by combining a short-term data set of monitored energy consumption, weather variables and internal loads with at least one year of recent utility bills. Two weeks of monitoring of hourly data in many cases, along with utility history representing the long-term data, were found to be sufficient for estimating long-term energy consumption. This seminar shows the hourly time scale results of RP-1404, along with an analysis that provides recommendations and guidance to energy modelers in their use of short-term monitoring for long-term prediction of building energy performance.

This presentation deals with two simple inverse modeling methods and data monitoring protocols which can be used to identify statistical models that would result in accurate daily energy use predictions. The Dry Bulb Temperature Analysis (DBTA) method only requires measuring dry-bulb ambient temperature for 2-3 months but the monitoring period and length have to be selected judiciously. The Hybrid Inverse Model using daily data (HIM-D) only requires about one month of monitoring and utility bills. The model combines information from recent year-long utility bill data along with a few weeks of monitored building energy use, weather variables and internal loads.

Calibrated Building Energy Modeling (CBEM) was applied to determine monthly energy bill allocations for a non-metered residential community. The calibration was performed using community level utility bills, real weather data, building survey data, and occupant behavior. The procedures can be applied to other buildings and occupant profiles. The results can be translated into algorithms in the form of an easy to use computer tool. Additionally, the monthly utility bill allotments can be calculated each month based on real weather for tenant review and instant behavior education.

Accurately predicting building energy usage is of great importance in various efforts on improving building energy efficiency. Data-driven approach and first-principle approach are commonly used in developing models for building energy usage prediction. We employed different data driven methods to predict hourly energy usages in two buildings. One was a synthetic large-size office building from DOE reference building models. The other was an existing commercial building. The obtained hourly energy consumption for each building was divided into training and testing sets. We focused on evaluating the accuracy and model complexity of data-driven models for predicting energy usage of two buildings.

For a new LEED Platinum building, a forward model was integrated in the building design process and offered the flexibility to evaluate different design options and compare overall energy efficiency to the local building energy-efficiency code. The model was calibrated using 1.5 years' of measured building performance data after occupancy in 2012. The calibrated model energy use outputs are now being used to compare with the latest two years' (2014, 2015) of measured building energy data. In this session, the comparison results are presented. The effectiveness of using calibrated model output as a benchmark for building energy savings calculation is analyzed.

Nearly 600 papers were reviewed regarding the effects of humidity on comfort, health, and indoor environmental quality (IEQ), of which 70 focused on low humidity (RH40%) and were thoroughly analyzed. Low humidity had little effect on thermal comfort, but increased skin dryness, eye irritation, and static electricity. Low humidity increased the survival of some pathogens, e.g. influenza. Low humidity showed non-uniform effects on volatile organic compound emissions and indoor air quality. Temperature, ventilation rates and time were noted as confounding variables. Most studies with adults utilized exposure times of maximum three hours; few studies used children, adolescents or elderly subjects.

Today, humidification is used primarily to protect materials and aid in manufacturing processes. However, data tells us that proper air hydration is also essential for our health. People resist short term dehydration by thirst-prompted (dry mouth) fluid intake. Conversely, chronic dehydration from water evaporation through skin and respiratory tissues in dry indoor air is unperceivable, yet has dire health consequences. Dry indoor air decreases our resistance to infections and allergies while providing a perfect environment to enhance microorganisms' infectivity and dissemination. This seminar presents new and existing data on the health benefits of proper air humidification.

ASHRAE research project “Limiting criteria for human exposure to low humidity” was conducted in 2001-2002 at the Technical University of Denmark. The impact of humidity on comfort and working performance was measured subjectively and objectively at 5%rh, 15%rh, 25%rh and 35%rh at 22°C (71.6°F) and at 18°C, 22°C and 26°C at 2.4 g/kg. The effect of low humidity was observed at both clean and polluted indoor environment. The results found that low humidity had negative impact on mucous quality and working performance that requires visual attention. Some interactions between low humidity and air pollution on dryness symptoms were observed.

ASHRAE Standard 199 was published in June 2016 to evaluate the performance of industrial pulse-cleaned dust collectors. The workshop covers development of this standard, and its progress to a new ISO standard. This method of test applies to bag, cartridge, or envelope industrial dust collectors that recondition the filter media by using pulses of compressed air to discharge the dust cake from the filter media. Attendees will learn how the test evaluates dust collector performance in terms of energy consumption and particulate emissions.

Research Project 1284 provided foundational research for evaluating dust collector performance. Speakers discuss that research and its conclusions, and how those conclusions were applied to ASHRAE Standard 199. The workshop also looks at some actual test data from tests using Standard 199 to explain results.

With the inception of heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems (HVAC) and ever more energy efficient building structures there is an increased focus on the quality of air within the built environment. The desiccant solutions, LiCl and CaCl₂, used with the LDD technology are extremely germicidal. Any microorganism contacting the solution is eradicated. The critical nature of the Healthcare environment is paramount in respect to IAQ. A focus on the application of LDD within Healthcare settings will be presented, specifically the impact upon pathogens associated with Healthcare acquired infections.

Two novel, high latent, compressor-based air conditioners were operated at military installations during the 2015 summer under the Department of Defense’s Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP). Both air conditioners use a liquid desiccant to more than double the latent cooling provided by a conventional air conditioner. Although tested in configuration where they processed an 85/15 mix of return and outdoor air, the high latent capacity of the air conditioners make them ideal candidates for treating 100% ventilation air. The seminar presentation will focus on the field-monitored performance of the prototypes and the positive impact they had on indoor comfort.

In the spring of 2016, a 20 ton pilot air conditioner was installed in the extreme climate of Jubail, Saudi Arabia. Liquid desiccant heat exchangers enable systems to condition air to the desired temperature and humidity in a single step. This is made possible because the supply air exiting these exchangers has a dew-point near or even below the evaporator temperature. A system model, used to design the system, predicts a 33% reduction in energy use compared to other available systems. This presentation provides a brief overview of the system design and compare the demonstrated and predicted performance.

UV-C technology has been used as a disinfection method for decades in the healthcare industry. The UV-C wavelength of 253.7 nanometers has been proven to be effective at eliminating or neutralizing dangerous pathogens like C. difficile, Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus and more. The current technologies focus on cleaning surfaces to reduce healthcare associated infections. Three studies were conducted at an acute care hospital, a children’s hospital and a long term acute care facility to determine if reducing the number of colony forming units of bacteria and/or fungus in the air would improve indoor air quality.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a major gaseous contaminant group affecting indoor air quality. Various technologies have been applied for the removal of VOCs. There are conventional systems based on adsorption process, i.e., activated carbon and/or potassium permanganate alumina pellets in trays or deep beds, particulate filters incorporating very thin beds of activated carbon or alumina pellets, and carbon cloth. The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of air flow rates on the performances of oxidation-based air cleaning technologies including UV with photocatalysts, plasma and ozone generators.

To prevent corrosion, tri-cresyl-phosphate (TCP) is added to aircraft engine oil. TCP occurs in a mixture of ten different isomers. The ortho isomers of TCP are known to be the most neurotoxic, however at present it is unknown in what concentration the ortho and the other isomers occur in cabin air, due to leakage in the air conditioning system, and in engine exhaust fumes. Various professions of airline staff may be exposed to concentrations of TCP. This research describes the assessment of the exposure through measurements inside the cockpit during flight, spot measurements on the ramp and personal measurements of ground mechanics.

ASHRAE Standard 161, Air Quality within Commercial Aircraft, includes a requirement for bleed air sensors to detect contamination from lubricating oil. One potential approach to meeting this requirement is through particle detection. A four-part experimental program was conducted to develop a detailed characterization of particles that result when bleed air is contaminated with lubricating oil. This research shows that development of sensors for detecting oil contamination in aircraft bleed air should focus on ultrafine particle detection and sensing of low contamination levels may require sensitivity to extreme ultrafine particles 10 nanometers and smaller.

The outside air used to pressurize and ventilate the cabin during flight is supplied by bleed air from the propulsion engine compressors on most airliners. The potential for this air to be contaminated by lubricating oil from leaking engine seals and other sources is believed to be rare. ASHRAE Standard 161, Air Quality within Commercial Aircraft, addresses this issue and includes a requirement for bleed air oil contamination sensing. This standard does not address the technology to be used for this sensing nor does it provide guidance about the physical characteristics of the contaminants as they appear in the bleed air.

In this work, a novel approach for the automated fault detection and diagnostics (AFDD) of building HVAC operation is introduced utilizing properties of the Koopman operator to extend the capabilities of rules-based FDD approaches. The Koopman operator is an infinite-dimensional, linear operator that captures nonlinear, finite dimensional dynamics. These mathematical aspects translate into algorithms which can effectively evaluate the magnitude and coincidence of data. Using properties of the operator, building management system (BMS) trend data can be decomposed into components which allow the capture of device-to-device interactions as well as device behavior at varying time-scales.

Natural ventilation is one of the most important green building features. Although the intention is often to reduce energy consumption, natural ventilation strategies may deteriorate indoor air quality (IAQ) when in close proximity to major roadways. This study employs a CFD-based air quality model to quantify the impact of traffic-related air pollution on the IAQ of a naturally ventilated building in a near-road environment. Our study found that the building envelope restricts dispersion and dilution of particulate matter (PM).

As cars are parked within an underground parking structure, CO and other exhaust fumes are emitted into the atmosphere. There is a need for an efficient ventilation system that can remove these toxins, circulate fresh air into the garage, and assist fire fighters in the case of a fire emergency. There are two options for this task: ducted or ductless ventilation. Ducted ventilation is heavily used in the US and other global markets. While this has been the standard for many years, innovations in the field of ventilation have shifted the conventional ventilation system towards ductless designs.

ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2013 provides two alternative procedures for selecting the minimum ventilation rate for commercial buildings: the prescriptive Ventilation Rate Procedure (VRP); and the rarely used performance-based Indoor Air Quality Procedure (IAQP). The IAQP allows lower ventilation rates than the VRP and, at a minimum, maintains the same indoor air quality, providing additional contaminant reduction strategies are applied. This paper provides examples, benefits and lessons learned from applying IAQP in various commercial buildings located in a variety of climates.

Flexible duct air distribution systems are used in a large percentage of residential and small commercial buildings in the United States. Very little empirical or predictive data is available to help provide the HVAC design engineers with reliable information. The aim of this research is to measure experimentally using the guidelines of ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 120-2008 the friction loss of the air flow inside a realistic layout out flexible duct used for residential/small commercial buildings.

One barrier to adoption of natural ventilation is the knowledge that application in inappropriate climates or during inappropriate hours could lead to conditions in buildings which may affect both comfort and IAQ. As such, designers must diligently determine whether a climate is appropriate for natural ventilation. A series of tests on the typical meteorological year weather data can be used for this purpose. For many US climates, even mild climates, under normal design conditions, natural ventilation alone may not assure occupant satisfaction. In most cases, spaces may be advised to use mixed-mode ventilation systems, which combine natural ventilation and mechanical ventilation.

Natural ventilation can provide fresh air for a building and is one strategy for reducing building energy demand while maintaining or improving indoor air quality. However, there exists uncertainties regarding implications of naturally ventilated commercial buildings with respect to indoor air quality. This presentation summarizes a review of the state of building codes and standards, case studies, and research literature regarding the application of natural ventilation to commercial buildings with specific attention to IAQ objectives, including: i) air pollutants of concern, ii) modeling approaches, iii) prescriptive approaches, and iv) new directions for improving IAQ in naturally ventilated buildings

Two often overlooked but crucial parts of the design process for buildings wanting to take advantage of wind-driven natural ventilation are 1) obtaining accurate facade pressures, and 2) using them in such a way as to accurately predict the amount of air which will enter a space. Through a review of extant sources and presentation of new research, this presentation looks at the various methods for obtaining and using facade pressures and discusses strengths and weaknesses of each.

Natural ventilation in buildings has been around for many years, Robert Boyle provided a description on how to design such a system in the 1800’s. Today's current trend of incorporating natural ventilation or a natural ventilation scheme into building design has led to a quest for a more detailed analysis of space conditions. This presentation presents some modern day applications of natural ventilation which also include space moisture conditions and analysis of air movement within a space.

This presentation compares the effect of two pollutant control strategies on both exposures to contaminants of concern (COCs) and energy use in a high-performance multinational technology company. The first control strategy was the conventional ventilation strategy following the ventilation rate procedure of ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2013. The second strategy consisted of applying the LEED Pilot Alternative Compliance Path 68: Indoor Air Quality Procedure while using air cleaning along with reduced ventilation. This presentation provides results from field measurements of energy and IAQ and documentation of meeting LEED IAQP objective and subjective requirements.

The USGBC LEED process is intended to transform the way our buildings are designed, constructed and operated. Recognizing the limitation of ASHRAE 62.1 VRP prescriptive requirements, USGBC developed an alternate compliance path that allows a robust design and verification process to balance good IAQ with optimization of HVAC system for energy conservation and reduced negative impact of energy production on the environment. This presentation describes implementation of the LEED ventilation process through air quality measurement and verification including occupant surveys. The presentation describes energy and HVAC system economic savings from optimization of ventilation rate versus prescriptive approach.

The largest independent co-educational college-preparatory day school in the United States is located in the Atlanta (GA) metropolitan area. Several buildings use geothermal wells for heating and cooling, however, the existing well field did not have sufficient capacity for the new humanities building and the cost of new wells was prohibitive. Consequently, the design team opted to use LEED Pilot Credit 68: Indoor Air Quality Procedure to reduce the overall load on the well field, provide for capital cost savings, and ongoing energy savings. This presentation describes how the IAQ Procedure was successfully applied towards achieving LEED Gold certification.

This presentation discusses how to conduct optimal design of an indoor environment based on specific design objectives by controlling the thermo-fluid boundary conditions, such as air supply location, size, and parameters. This study used a CFD-based adjoint method to identify the othermo-fluid boundary conditions. Through defining the air distribution in a certain area (design domain) as a design objective in an indoor space, the adjoint method can identify the air supply location, size, and parameters. The adjoint method can only achieve local design optimal but the computing costs did not depend on the number of design variables.

This talk presents a method that combines the genetic algorithm (GA) with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) technique, which can efficiently optimize the flow inlet conditions with various objective functions. A coupled simulation platform based on GenOpt (GA program) and Fluent (CFD program) was developed. Two new design methods were provided: the constraint method and the optimization method. A simple 2-D office and an aircraft cabin were evaluated, as demonstrations, which reveal both methods have superior performance in system design. The optimization method provides more accurate results while the constraint method needs less computation efforts.

Transporting patients to the hospitals in emergencies, the heliport is usually located on the roof of the hospital. This may cause the exhaust emitting from the helicopter to get into the air-intakes of the ventilation equipment on the roof, open entrances, and windows, leading to odor complaints and health related issues inside the hospital. Considering complexity of the problem and number of the design parameters, this study used CFD to investigate the helicopter exhaust fume entrainments into the hospital under different wind directions and speed, which helps find the optimum placement for air-intakes to reduce the particles and gas entrainment.

Protecting the health of aircraft painters in an industrial environment that contains hazardous metals and organics motivates design and operation of hangar ventilation systems for maximum effectiveness, with a secondary consideration of energy use in these large and tempered spaces. There lacks of consensus regarding optimal air velocities in vehicular painting facilities. This study evaluated cross-flow velocity vs. exposure at approximately 50, 75, and 100 fpm, during fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft painting, using CFD, tracer experiments, and personal exposure monitoring. Contaminant removal effectiveness (CRE) was greater for crossflow ventilation than for other airflow path designs.

It is well known that displacement ventilation can potentially decrease energy usage while improving indoor air quality. There is little to no guidance on how to apply displacement ventilation in an industrial setting for the purposes of controlling airborne particles. The presentation focuses on a large factory space where the control of manganese particles from the welding processes is of primary concern. CFD simulations with particle tracking are used to assess the effectiveness of the design and highlight the most important design parameters that affect breathing zone particle concentrations.

When San Diego-based Palomar Health (PH) realized that the state’s seismic upgrade requirements would have been cost-prohibitive to implement in their existing Hospital building, Palomar Health took the opportunity to build a new, technologically advanced hospital that would require its employees to reinvent how they deliver healthcare for the 21st century. The presentation summarizes the advanced design methods and constant focus towards flexibility that will enable this hospital to adapt to virtually any code cycle that may be adopted by the State or other Authority Having Jurisdiction.

The University of San Diego’s (USD’s) newly adopted Climate Action (CAP) plan sets a framework to reduce USD’s greenhouse gas emissions and contribution to climate change. The CAP sets out a general methodology for establishing short, medium and long term strategic goals and feedback mechanisms to provide performance data, as well as a number of specific recommendations to improve sustainability performance of the University. This presentation showcases how USD is implementing changes in their campus design standards, energy dashboards, and measurement and verification systems to address their building related impact on greenhouse gas emissions.

The impacts of a changing climate are wide-ranging in both impact and scope. This presentation focuses on the effect climate variability would have on Salt Lake County’s energy demand and air quality impacts. Salt Lake County, UT is a Zone 5, Subtype B climate encompassing the state capital, Salt Lake City, and the University of Utah (UU). Energy demand scenarios derived using climate predictions for 2040-50 are presented at three scales: individual building, central business district, and county level. The Wasatch Front Regional Council’s regional transportation and land use projections for 2040 were used as the backbone of our urbanization growth predictions.

Human thermal sensation and comfort are important topics in the design and operation of occupied spaces. Steady state thermal sensation and comfort has been widely studied and has robust predictive models available for designers but responses to transient conditions have received much less attention. The current study reports on the transient thermal comfort and sensation reported by subjects while playing a video game. Chamber temperatures ranged from 25°C starting temperature to 40°C and then back to 25°C in a symmetrical profile design. The rise and fall occurred over a 20 minute time frame.

Micro cogeneration and micro trigeneration technologies have the potential to reduce domestic energy consumption and create more resilient buildings. In this work, variations in residential heat to power ratio due to climate change are assessed in the Northeastern climate of the United States. Simulations of high R-value walls are compared to older wall constructions in current and future climate conditions. Impacts on current micro cogeneration design are discussed. The study explores the interrelationship between climate, enclosure and micro cogeneration heat to power ratio with the goal of developing and designing enclosure and micro cogeneration systems that are more adaptive to climate changes.

Three AHRTI projects on flammable refrigerants and their status are presented: Benchmarking Risk by Real Life Leaks and Ignitions Testing, Leak Detection of A2L Refrigerants in HVACR Equipment and Investigation of Hot surface Ignition Temperature for 2L Refrigerants.

Three ASHRAE projects on flammable refrigerants and their status are presented: ASHRAE 1806 Flammable Refrigerants Post-ignition Risk Assessment, ASHRAE 1807: Guidelines for flammable refrigerant handling, transporting, storing and equipment servicing and installation and ASHRAE 1808: Servicing and Installing Equipment using Flammable Refrigerants: Assessment of Field-made Mechanical Joints.

In this project, ORNL reviews existing information on available studies and methodologies for determining safe charge limits for equipment employing flammable refrigerants. ORNL will then embark on a modeling campaign to evaluate different leak source and rate scenarios for various types of equipment employing A2L refrigerants using CFD dispersion modeling. The project status update is also presented.

For the thermodynamic performance of refrigerants, there exists predictive tools that can be used for working fluid optimization. It would be highly desirable if such a capability could be developed for flammability. The goal of the present project is to develop the capability to predict, from first principles, the burning velocity of pure refrigerants (R32, R125, R134a, R152a, 1234yf, and 1234ze(E)), as well as their blends. Once developed, the predictive models can then be used to understand the effect of individual components of blends on the burning velocity so that guiding principles can be developed for reducing flammability.

Traditionally there are two approaches to thermal comfort studies in the indoor environment. The first approach is to conduct tests in fully controlled climate chambers located in laboratories which help in maintaining desired environmental conditions for the experiments. The alternate/second approach is to place sensors and collect data in a set of homes and offices over a period of time where researchers have virtually no control on the thermal environment. This paper reports on an original approach that combines the advantages of both these methods. In this research thermal comfort studies were conducted in a test house.

The dairy industry is one of the most energy intensive sectors in food processing; mainly concentration and spray drying are responsible for high energy consumption. One overall objective is to significantly reduce the energy consumption. Savings are expected to reach over 60%. Amongst others the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy Public Relations publish a subsidy for energy efficient and climate friendly production processes. This program is a good opportunity to the dairy sector in Germany and will lead to increased competitiveness. This presentation focuses on spray dryer plants.

This paper shows positive results for introducing energy conservation measures after analyzing facility data acquired by Energy Management System in an existing middle-sized factory. The factory produces around 400,000 gas meters a year. It achieved 37% CO2 reduction from 2011 to 2014. Since 2011, some simple measures had been implemented such as switch-off of unused lights and air-conditioners for unoccupied areas. To achieve higher energy conservation, reduction of air-conditioning load with no drop in productivity and workplace quality was critical. To design new effective energy conservation measures it was necessary to analyze room condition data and energy usage data.

Buildings located inside oil refineries are a typical example of industrial buildings where designers need to balance life safety and energy efficiency. The three most common hazards that such buildings are subject to are blasts, toxic gasses and flammable gasses. The key to achieving energy efficiency without compromising life safety is to understand the hazards imposed on a certain refinery building and the mitigation measures required. This paper describes how a Vapor Cloud Explosion (VCE) differs from regular explosion and how selecting the right blast damper for the over-pressure and impulse of a specific blast will result in energy savings.

The Industrial Assessment Centers have existed for 42 years with an objective of teaching students how to assess energy in manufacturing facilities while providing in-field training by doing assessments. A database exists of the recommendations resulting from these assessments and their consequently implementation. This presentation gives an overview of the IACs and the results of data-mining the recommendations made in over 17,000 assessments. Results are presented for the fraction of total energy costs in gas and electricity use and demand; the most common recommendations grouped by industry NIACS classifications, the most common implemented recommendations; and typical payback periods.

This presentation highlights the role of control systems in reducing energy use in industrial facilities. The basic elements of an industrial control system are discussed and examples of energy efficiency projects related to each element are given, accompanied by statistics drawn from reported implemented projects by industry. Some selected industrial case studies reaffirm the growing potential of control systems to improve product quality, while reducing energy usage and production costs.

This seminar presents a framework for achieving energy and material sustainability. It describes a methodology to calculate the necessary rates of improvement to achieve net-zero carbon and net-zero waste manufacturing. The speaker describes methodologies to achieve energy and material sustainability based principles of energy and material efficiency applied across to energy systems and material flows. The presentation shows how the savings from energy and material efficiency can find the transition to and maintenance of sustainable manufacturing.

Energy use in agricultural facilities is only one sector of the total energy used in the agriculture industry. The challenge is to correctly determine energy consumption for these facilities. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provides many reports of energy used in agriculture, however reporting is always provided in monetary values. Using these values, actual energy use can be approximated for different sectors of agriculture and different energy sources. Overall, fertilizer production and diesel fuel are the dominant energy inputs on farms. Electricity use is a major player as well, and the predominant energy form used in agricultural facilities.

The predominant energy forms used in livestock facility systems include electricity and liquid propane (LP gas). Using the approximated energy use from USDA data and other sources, electricity and LP gas use will be partitioned into different use categories for swine, dairy and poultry facility systems. LP gas typically is used for space heating and water heating. Electricity is typically used for ventilation, air circulation, lighting, equipment motors and on-farm refrigeration. With an understanding of the partitioned energy use within a given livestock sector, the implementation of energy efficiency practices and standards can be evaluated.

Energy used for growing plants indoors ranges from very small to very large, facility type, and crop. Indoor crop production is inherently more energy use intensive than outdoor cultivation due to the use of systems to control the growing environment. Systems used in vertical farms, plant factories, and cannabis facilities are much more energy intensive, requiring supplemental lighting for 12 or more hours, large air conditioning units to remove both sensible and latent heat, and large fans to achieve high air exchange rates. Understanding energy use in indoor plant production will allow the identification and implementation of energy efficiency measures.

This presentation provides a brief overview of the current landscape of refrigeration systems and technologies associated with refrigerated facilities (energy use, water use, refrigerant selection & externalities of direct and indirect effects of refrigerant emissions, sustainability considerations, etc.). In addition, it articulates the need to gather the best practices and technical information related to refrigeration technologies, design and operating practices for refrigerated facilities.

This presentation provides an overview of ASHRAE's newest design guide. It not only discusses the goals and objectives of the design guide but it also identifies the guide's audience. The presentation also provides an inside look at the guidebook contents.

This presentation discusses the guidebook's refrigeration system design example by going through a sample calculation.

Test results with new refrigerants in actual systems vary considerably leading to initial uncertainty about the relative merits of the new fluids. Factors that influence measured performance as compared to theoretical expectations are presented and their relative impact and sensitivity is discussed.

Integration of renewable energy systems with the buildings is a mystery to many. Questions about net metering, batteries, peak savings, renewable energy certificates abound as many consider how to reduce their environmental footprint with renewables. One identified barrier is a relatively low working knowledge of the technologies—both wind and solar. This presentation provides an engineer’s perspective on application of these two renewable energy sources in the building sector. It will also provide information on the benefits and challenges associated with metering, renewable energy certificates, resiliency, and cost-effectiveness.

Biomass is defined in detail; legally and practically, and reviewed for its role in renewable energy. The abundance of biomass, and its many readily available forms is examined as well as the advantages of its use, particularly for heating and cooling. Options for converting biomass to energy such as methane digesters, wood combustion, trash to energy, and biomass gasification will be provided. The impacts of using biomass instead of fossil energy sources is also explored.

ASHRAE members are being asked in the design of systems to consider the safety aspects of systems. Semi-conductor and Nano-technology facilities are among some of the most dangerous facilities that ASHRAE membership may encounter. Should a new chapter be developed for these facilities and should the methodology for assessing risk and developing mitigating factors be a significant portion of that chapter?

ASHRAE members are typically concerned with supply and exhaust systems in Semi-conductor facilities. However there are many other areas that can affect the performance of HVAC equipment. Should a Handbook Chapter dedicated specifically to Semi-conductor and Nano-technology facilities be created to address these concerns beyond clean room design and industrial gas cleaning?

Now that you’ve got your bearings and know the difference between a TC and a TG, this seminar tells you about the softer side of ASHRAE. You’ll find out what social events you shouldn’t miss and how to make the most of your conference experience.

This presentation covers the fundamentals surrounding water flow measurement in hydronic systems. Why, how, what. Hydronic systems (chilled water, heating hot water, or condenser water) are effectively a HVAC transmission. Pumps, pipes, and valves make-up the envelop and their effectiveness can be measured by the volume flow rate of water in the pipe. Flow rate is measured through pressure drop - such as valves, orifices, venturis, equipment losses; by pump curve; and with throughput measurement equipment such as ultrasonic and magnetic meters. The merits and practicalities of each are covered.

Submetering is recognized as a mean to optimize building performance, but can be expensive to implement. New electronically controlled pumps, which need to be there in any case, have a lot of built in functionalities which can be used for submetering. These functionalities were initially developed to control the pump itself, but are today interfacing with the BMS system to optimize building performance. This presentation gives an overview of measurement signals, which are typically available from an electronically controlled pump, the accuracy of these signals and how they can be used for submetering.

This paper evaluates the indoor environmental conditions of the Decontamination Room in the Sterile Processing Department (SPD) in US Hospitals. Research is scarce on assessing for the indoor conditions in these rooms. This outlines the criteria used for the evaluation process and summarizes the environmental requirements and recommendations related to applicable codes and standards. It provides recommendations for indoor environmental parameters.

Heating and cooling systems in buildings can be divided into three main subsystems: heating/cooling plant, distribution system of the heat transfer medium, and indoor terminal unit. The choice of terminal unit is critical due to its direct effects on thermal indoor environment and system energy use. This paper reports the results of energy and exergy analyses of a single-family house, and an office room, theoretically assuming that they were heated or cooled by an air-based (air heating and cooling) or a water-based system (radiant floor heating and cooling).

In 2013, about 66% of the total energy in China is supplied by coal, 18.4% by petroleum and 5.8% by natural gas. The humidity ratio of the exhaust gas differs according to the type of fuels as the fuel with higher hydrogen content will produce more water vapor during combustion. The latent heat occupies a large proportion of the total exhaust heat and will contribute a lot to energy saving if fully utilized. This paper introduces a system used for waste heat recovery from flue gases with the liquid desiccant serving as circulatory mediator.

This project investigates the potential benefits of combining cooling of London underground train tunnels with the transfer of heat to district heating networks. Instead of using air cooled chillers to cool the air in the underground tunnels, it is planned to use water to water heat pumps to transfer the heat to a district heating network. This should significantly reduce the total energy input required for both the heating and cooling of the respective networks. It has been previously estimated that there is at least 25 MW of waste heat available from cooling the London underground system.

The refrigeration industry plays a major role in today’s global economy, with significant contributions made in food, health, energy and environmental domains which policy makers need to better understand and take into account. The need for engineering and technical staff is currently increasing due to the growing demand for refrigerating capacities, along with the unique skills required of refrigeration-related professions in the field of energy and environment. Women are still significantly and visibly under-represented in the refrigeration industry. This paper demonstrates the current preliminary state-of-the-art of women in the refrigeration field collected from the national refrigeration institutions and associations.

Sweating chilled water pipes (CWP) can be a significant source of building dampness and mold. Lines supplying chilled water to air handling units are insulated to prevent surface condensation and conserve energy. Insufficient insulation, incomplete sealing during installation and damage during maintenance are common, allowing condensation to form on surfaces, eventually wetting the insulation and supporting mold growth. A protocol for assessing and remediating mold on CWP insulation and ensuring effective re-insulation, through effective quality control was developed in conjunction with a project for replacing failed CWP insulation in 15 schools. Cost-effective resolution of mold growth WP was demonstrated.

At a football stadium & convention center, in Houston, Texas, the original chilled water (CHW) pipe insulation systems required replacement due to extensive moisture intrusions. Although the CHW flowed continuously, the Air Handling Units were shut down when the building was not in use. This allowed the indoor environments to be exposed to Houston’s outdoor high temperatures and humidity during those times. Remediation required replacing the CHW pipe insulation with an insulation system of a totally different design without major pipe relocations and while the CHW circulated through the pipes being reinsulated.

Mechanical pipe insulation systems are installed on chilled water pipes that operate at below ambient temperatures inside buildings. Water vapor is drawn from the surrounding ambient air toward the pipes and the thermal conductivity of the pipe insulation systems is affected by ambient temperature and water vapor ingress. This talk provides an overview of the findings from two recent ASHRAE funded research projects on this topic. The speaker shows cases in which pipe insulation thermal conductivity increased with moisture ingress. This talk also illustrates the importance of including appropriate insulation thickness safety margins.

Mr. Hart will summarize the results of several hygrothermal analyses, using commercially available software, on simulated insulated chilled water pipe, held at a fixed temperature for 25 years in a Houston, Texas ambient environment. The pipe insulation modeled was a highly porous mineral fiber material with each of four different sheet-type vapor retarder jackets. These jackets had water vapor permeance values from a high of 0.134 perm to a low of 0.005 perm. The results show significant differences in predicted quantities of water vapor condensation and in subsequent increases in insulation thermal conductivity between each of the four insulation systems.

ASHRAE Headquarters, which is used as the common example, is described and common data assumptions are explained. RTS peak load calculation results included in the Handbook of Fundamentals are described and are used as the baseline in comparing various BIM calculation results.

BIM models can be enriched with envelope construction and material properties information, schedules and internal loads for creating building energy models (BEM). This presentation summarizes the workflow for performing HVAC load calculations in a BIM authoring environment using cloud-based EnergyPlus design day simulation. The assumptions and best practices for transferring the BIM data for BEM, and the process of transferring the load calculation results automatically to the BIM will be demonstrated with the ASHRAE HQ Building case study. This approach provides architects and designers to perform load calculations without the need to perform any specialized energy modeling tasks.

This presentation discusses challenges encountered when using gbXML to tranfer information from Revit to AECOsim Energy Simulator (AES). It also discusses the workflow for adding missing information required for heating/cooling load calculations. Load calculation results from AES will be compared to results from ASHRAE heating load and cooling load (RTS) calculations.

This seminar discusses extracting ASHRAE HQ building information from the BIM (in Revit) using Green Building XML (gbXML). Then, it explains how to take the gbXML file and import it into TRACE to perform HVAC load calculations. Ideally, this should be a seamless process where all information transfers perfectly from one vendor's software tool to another and creates an HVAC load calculation at the click of a button. However, in reality, this does not happen. The speaker discusses the difficulties encountered and what practitioners should do to make it as seamless as possible.

In order to promote energy conservation, the building owner shows the understanding of the energy-saving efforts, the designer is committed to energy-saving design of the building, and government has a role to review the precise energy-saving buildings. BEST is a building energy-saving simulation program that’s been developed since 2005, as a suitable software in order to promote energy conservation. It is a life-cycle design software that can be utilized in the design and operation phase as well as corresponding to the energy conservation law. BEST is used as a simulation software that corresponds to Japan's Energy Conservation Law from 2009.

One of the factors for obsoleting a simulation tool is not updating the Equipment Characteristics after the release of the program. For this reason the BEST (Building Energy Simulation Tool) program committee, the section meetings for Equipment Characteristics are held continuously and the BEST program’ Equipment Characteristics is updated frequently. The section meetings are held among the type of equipment, and there are cooperation agreements of Industry Association at the section meetings. The Equipment Characteristics’ databases are made up of two models (statistical model and physical model), and the databases hold three datasets (rated Characteristics, mid Characteristics, dynamic characteristics).

BEST (i.e. Building Energy Simulation Tool) is a whole building energy simulation software. Its development was started by a Japanese industry-government-academia joint team in 2005. Since then, BEST has continuously been refined. This paper describes the concept and the features of the latest version of BEST relating to simulation methodology, databases and user interfaces and also presents the simulation results that shows the specific capabilities of BEST. BEST enables integrated simulations of building behavior and control operation of HVAC systems as well as electric and plumbing systems.

This paper describes simulation methodologies of HVAC systems using self-adjusting template, which are implemented in the BEST program. To achieve extensibility and ease of maintenance, modular structure is introduced. Any appliance is modeled as a module class that implements formatted common functions. One of the new features of the BEST program is “template” structure by which effort for making input data is considerably reduced. Templates are a partial systems implemented, should be prepared in advance connected parts of more than one module.

While buildings will always have unique characteristics, there are a number of strategies that can help close the gap between the expected and realized energy performance. This paper presents common issues that arise from the design phase to ongoing operation of buildings. The paper focuses on monitoring-based commissioning using real time data and advanced software analytics to uncover and resolve problems. Real world examples are presented to showcase the challenges faced with complex equipment operation. Examples of technical issues uncovered during commissioning will be provided along with solutions to reduce these issues in the future.

This session introduces the technical approach to determine the conditioned space heat fraction and the radiative heat fraction of the LED lighting fixtures under test. The session describes the configuration of the test chamber, net radiometer, and instrumentation. The criteria of selecting representative LED luminaires for testing are also discussed.

The test results of fourteen LED lighting luminaires are analyzed in this session, including the heat gain fractions obtained from base case and the impact of different test conditions. The session also compares the heat gain distribution between LED lighting fixtures and conventional lighting fixtures.

Field application of LED lighting heat gain distribution data. Widespread application of LED lighting is having a significant impact on HVAC systems design. This presentation compares LED lighting load densities for typical office spaces with vs more traditional lighting designs. Data gathered as part of recent research will be used to calculate comparative impact on cooling loads and resulting air handler and chiller loads.

Buildings are for people but habiting means vapor release. The new chapter introduced by ASHRAE Technical Committee 1.12 looks to how large that release is in residential buildings, schools and natatoriums. It advances a method commonly used to evaluate the importance, offers examples of how the method is used and summarizes the consequences the unavoidable vapor release may have if the impact is not moderated.

Sooner or later, every building owner and HVAC designer comes up against a humidity or moisture problem that simply won’t go away. The members of ASHRAE Technical Committee 1.12 have gathered their experiences of diagnosing and fixing several of the most common moisture problems and summarized these in Chapter 62 of the 2015 ASHRAE Handbook: Applications. This presentation summarizes the hard-knock experiences of your colleagues. The information is practical, it’s simple and it’s real.

Epidemiological investigators have shown clear and consistent associations between occupancy of damp indoor spaces and increased probability of important adverse health effects. A Multidisciplinary Task Group (MTG) developed a simple and recognizable description of when building dampness is sufficient to increase the probability of negative health effects. It also suggests practical tools and techniques utilizing four quantitative metrics that can alert managers to the risk of an indoor space becoming “damp” enough to affect health in the future.

The FAO and the IIR, in coordination with other United Nations organizations have decided to launch actions in order to increase the capacities of refrigerated storage and transport in developing countries: seminars, publications, financement of infrastructures. This workshop explains the context, the challenges and future actions.

Carrier decided to increase its presence in developing countries and to build a coalition with other companies and intergovernmental organizations such as IIR in order to develop an adequate cold chain in these countries.

There has been much recent attention, and in some cases concern, about airborne exposure to nanoparticles (generally meaning aerodynamic diameters less than 100 µm) associated with engineered nanomaterials. While there are valid questions about these potentials exposures, it is important to understand that so-called incidental nanoparticles are common in outdoor air and are also released from many normal residential activities, e.g. cooking. This presentation explains how airborne nanoparticles are measured, summarize measurements of incidental nanoparticles in a residential environment, and discusses some examples of how engineered nanomaterials in residential environments could be a source of exposure.

Nanomaterial development and application are viewed as an emerging discipline, but exposure to, and work with materials in the nanoscale has been occurring for centuries. Engineered nanomaterials are heralded for their important, unique characteristics not exhibited by macroscale materials of the same composition. Exposure to nanomaterials presents a unique set of exposure pathways with potentially new benefits and risks. Since the early research with ultrafine particles, new commercial and residential uses of a wide range of nanomaterials are challenging our understanding of the impact of these materials on human health and the environment throughout their lifecycle.

This session discusses the correct method of sizing hydronic control valves. Included will be a discussion of valve specification terminology, formulas for valve sizing, pipe geometry factors, and valve authority.

This session presents hydraulic modeling and case studies providing examples of the effects of incorrect control valve sizing that have negatively impacted the hydronic system as well as design strategies that impact system performance and control valve operation.

This presentation covers the background of the selection of Basecamp. What were the problems and proposed solutions for this system? Additionally, the presentation demonstrates the operation of Basecamp.

This presentation explains the operation of the ASHRAE Authoring portal and demonstrates the usage. Additionally, the speaker covers ASHRAE's legal and property concerns.

On November 21, 1980, one of the worst fire tragedies in US history happened at the MGM Grand Hotel on the famous Las Vegas “strip.” This fire killed 87 people, and approximately 70% of the fatalities were on the upper floors due to smoke inhalation. This paper discusses the fire including what made this tragedy happen. After this fire, many fire safety improvements have been made including advances in smoke control that would have significantly reduced the death toll.

Fire and life safety is probably the most important code compliant factors in modern building design. This presentation reviews the present code regulations and applications and in particular fire and life safety code issues for tall, supertall and megatall building systems.

Computational modeling in ASHRAE applications requires a level of confidence in the results. This presentation looks at a Verification and Validation of a surface condensation CFD model. The V&V was comprised of a comprehensive procedure for minimizing errors and comparing simulations to a benchmark experiment. The analysis is an assessment of the numerical uncertainty derived from a grid convergence study, an input analysis, a report of experimental uncertainty, and source of unqualified modeling. The total validation uncertainty is calculated for three measured parameters. Simulation results were found to match experimental data within the uncertainty of the validation.

The difficulty and cost associated with detailed measurements of various parameters at a variety of points in a room make CFD a good alternative if CFD results can be believed. This series of simulations modeled a simple case of a thermal manikin in a room with mixing ventilation. The results of these simulations were then compared to existing experiments. Simulations were conducted using different CFD programs, grids, turbulence models, manikin models, and by different users. The study provides insights on what is the current CFD modeling accuracy that one can achieve, believe, and will need for practice.

The CFD is an effective method for investigating air distribution and thermal conditions in large industrial buildings. CFD computing cost is a major concern for industrial simulation, in which CFD grid number plays a dominant role. The mesh type and size are critical on determining the cost of computation and the accuracy of the numerical results. The study uses several different industrial applications to analyze the influence of grid on CFD prediction. The research provides some guidelines on how to control the grid quality to obtain a reasonable accuracy while shorten the computing time for industrial applications

This talk focuses on the lubricant retention characteristics of lower global warming potential (LGWP) refrigerants R32, R1234yf, and R454B. The speaker highlights similarities and differences of the oil retention characteristics between refrigerant R410A and the LGWP refrigerants in two types of microchannel evaporators used in air conditioning systems for residential applications. The oil in circulation with the refrigerants penalized the evaporators’ heat transfer capacity and increased the refrigerant-side pressure drop. For the LGWP refrigerants, the penalization of the heat transfer capacity was lesser than that observed for the refrigerant R410A at similar operating conditions.

The miscibility of POE68 and PVE68 oils with R-1234ze(E) has been investigated for the temperature and oil mass fraction ranging of –35~80 °C and 0~70 wt%, respectively. Mixture saturation vapor pressures are also measured and are shown to decrease with increase in mass fraction of the oil. The miscibility-test results indicate that the POE68 and PVE68 oils are completely miscible at mass fractions of the oil below 20% and 10%, respectively, for the entire temperature. Refrigerant-oil phase separations are observed for certain mass fraction of the oil and temperature ranges, indicating that the refrigerant-oils are not miscible.

Because of the relatively high GWPs of HFCs, policy and regulatory actions to reduce, restrict, and eliminate their use are increasing in number. These regulatory actions are leading to the development of unsaturated chlorinated and fluorinated hydrocarbons with lower GWPs. Tradeoffs between GWP, flammability, and specific capacity will need to be made possibly resulting in the need for changes to equipment designs. Some lower GWP refrigerants are already being introduced in many market segments. This presentation provides an overview of these refrigerants and presents the state of understanding and development of these alternatives by their environmental, safety, and design tradeoffs.

To identify low GWP refrigerants to replace R-22 and R-410A, extensive experimental evaluations were conducted for multiple candidates at standard test conditions and at high-ambient conditions. R-22 was compared to R-290, DR-3, ARM-20B, N-20B and R-444B in a mini-split air conditioning unit originally designed for R-22; R-410A was compared to R-32, DR-55, ARM-71A, and R-447A in a mini-split unit designed for R-410A. In addition, the experimental data was used to calibrate a physics-based equipment model, i.e. ORNL Heat Pump Design Model (HPDM).

Presented are two R404A replacements: R448A (non-flammable; GWP = 1273) and R455A (mildly flammable; GWP = 146). A commercially available R404A self-contained freezer showed that the compressor run-times of R448A and R455A are similar to R404A due to similar capacity. The 24 hour energy consumption is 9% lower for R448A and 6% lower for R455A compared to R404A. Results for R448A in a commercially available walk-in freezer/cooler matched the capacity of R404A with 4% to 8% higher efficiency. Finally, results of an actual supermarket refrigeration system conversion from R404A to R448A showed energy savings from about 9% to 20%.

This paper presents local convective boiling measurements in a micro-fin tube for R448A, R449A, and R452B . An existing correlation was modified to predict multi-component mixtures, which predicted 98 % of the measurements to within ± 20 %. The results showed that refrigerant R452B exhibited the highest heat transfer among the three. For an example case, the heat transfer coefficients for R448A and R449A were roughly between 26% and 48% less than that of R404A; whereas, the R452B heat transfer coefficient was approximately 13% larger than that of R404A.

VAV systems are the most common HVAC system for commercial buildings but duct design practices vary widely around the country. Duct design practices are seldom based on hard analysis of whether they are optimum from a life cycle cost perspective. This seminar compares various VAV box inlet and outlet duct design options including their impact on first costs and pressure drop. The presentation focuses on single duct VAV reheat systems, but most of the principles apply to other VAV system variations, such as dual duct and fan-powered box systems.

There is a perception that a reverse-return hydronic piping configuration uses more piping and is therefore more expensive than its direct-return counterpart. While the cost disadvantage of reverse-return is true in some instances, this seminar presents a case that reverse-return doesn’t always add piping length and system cost, depending on system configuration. Reverse-return is sometimes overlooked or dismissed out-of-hand when it offers tangible benefits and could easily have been implemented at no net cost to the project, so a goal of this seminar is to encourage pipe system designers to explore and consider reverse-return in further detail.

ASHRAE 90.1-2013 specifies that “Water economizer systems shall be capable of cooling supply air by indirect evaporation and providing up to 100% of the expected system cooling load at outdoor air temperatures of 50°F dry bulb/45°F wet bulb and below.” Many engineers size the components involved in the economizer (cooling tower, cooling coils and ductwork or piping serving constant load spaces) solely for their primary function without considering how these components affect the ability to meet the above requirement. This presentation discusses whether the above requirement can be met and what are the implications for selection of the components.

Many large central chilled water systems depend on high chilled water temperature differential, ΔT, to minimize pumping energy and optimize chilled water thermal storage capacity. Buildings directly connected to central chilled water distribution systems should be designed to minimize pumping energy and maximize return chilled water return temperature to the central plant. High ΔT is achieved with proper coil and control valve selection, piping and pumping design and supply water control. This seminar presents ways to improve performance and avoid problems commonly encountered in large chilled water systems.

To characterize the magnitude of stack effect in existing buildings, differential pressures measurements were taken in fifteen high-rise buildings during the winter of 2013. Four observations were made: (1) unless conservative leakage values are used, typical hand calculations may under-predict the shaft-to-building differential pressures, (2) introduction of cold air into pressurized stairwells cooled the stair, but temperatures remained significantly higher than ambient (3) introduction of cold air into pressurized stairwells caused significant pressure and increased door opening forces required at the bottom of the stairs, (4) pressurization of the stairwells increased pressure and stack effect flows via the elevator shafts.

Driven by stack effect, smoke often spreads across a building through shafts, which becomes a major challenge for high-rise fire protections. It is therefore important to conduct research on the smoke movement inside high-rise shafts, for which scale modeling based on experiments in sub-scale models of full-size buildings is an important technique. In this paper, a new scale modeling method is developed based on a group of new dimensionless numbers based on the conservations of both heat transfer and mechanical energy for mechanical and natural venting systems of high-rise shafts.

A group of small-scale test sections consisting of acrylic and gypsum models with a single vertical shaft was used to simulate building fires. A propane burner on the first floor provided high-temperature gases that entered the shaft and moved to the upper floors via stack-effect forces under natural ventilation as well as mechanical exhausting conditions. Vertical variations of the pressure and temperature distribution were measured in the shaft. The locations of the Neutral Pressure Plane were determined based on pressure differences measured with different combinations of smoke mass flow rates and size of openings in the shaft.

Recently, multiple free-to-use online tools have been developed to help practitioners and researchers analyze thermal comfort. This presentation covers two such tools: one is the official ASHRAE Standard 55 thermal comfort tool and the other is a mean radiant shoebox analysis and visualization model. Both include the recent Addendum G to Standard 55, which added a calculation method accounting for the comfort effects of direct solar on occupants. Topics will include: advanced visualization of the Standard 55 comfort zone, local discomfort determination, clothing ensembles, direct solar, LEED thermal comfort credit documentation, shortwave vs longwave radiation, glazing properties, and others.

Before there was air conditioning or mechanical ventilation, there was natural ventilation. We have come full circle in the quest for low energy and zero energy buildings. Natural ventilation is used on many projects, but how is it used and how effective is it? ASHRAE Standard 55 describes how natural ventilation can be assessed to meet adaptive comfort criteria, how comfortable is this criteria? The work presented shows natural ventilation applications in various locations around the world and the compliance or noncompliance to adaptive comfort criteria. The presentation also highlights areas where natural ventilation applications need to be strengthened.

ASHRAE's Laboratory Design Guide was first published in 2001. In 2015 the second edition has been significantly updated and revised with several chapters significantly rewritten, new chapters added, references updated and design tools added. This seminar provides an overview of the key features of the guide. This seminar also addresses several important aspects of laboratory design that may differ from other building applications.

Selected, inter-related topics from the Design Guide are discussed to show how the available information fits together to support a design project. Air flow control, space pressurization and air balancing is one set of related topics. Selection and operation of air handlers and exhaust systems is another. This talk shows how the Design Guide serves the engineer.

This seminar outlines for both ASHRAE 90.1 -2016 and the Department of Energy – Energy Conservation Standard for Pumps, what these changes are and when they will effect the industry. The seminar comments on the implications of the changes to our industry from an energy conservation and cost stand point. Finally, the seminar suggests how these changes could ideally be applied.

Huge energy savings can be achieved when using variable speed drives on pumps in variable flow systems. However most systems are still equipped with fixed speed pumps due to first cost. For this reason, pump performance regulations are about to be adopted in EU and USA. These regulations comprise the combined unit consisting of the pump, motor and VSD i.e. the Extended Product. Methodologies have been developed which rates the Extended Product according to the overall efficiency. This presentation gives an overview of these regulations and highlights the differences between the US and EU regulation.

ASHRAE research project RP-1311 concluded with the creation of simulation models, the ASHWAT models, for complex fenestration systems (CFS) – glazing systems with attachments such as shades and insect screens. In these models, radiant flux – solar beam/diffuse or longwave –is on a layer-to-layer basis. ASHWAT also takes into account the convective heat transfer between the CFS layers. Methods to obtain convection coefficients for glazing cavities are well established, even for a cavity that includes a venetian blind. In this paper, a new numerical technique is applied to generate new convection coefficients for complex fenestration systems.

Recent work has been conducted to characterize the air-side heat transfer and pressure drop performance of heat exchangers with slit and louver fins and tube outer diameters ranging from 3-5 mm. These newly developed correlations have been implemented into a heat exchanger simulation tool to predict performance, enable design, and conduct detailed analysis. An optimization study was conducted using a Multi-Objective Genetic Algorithm (MOGA) technique. This paper highlights the benefits of reducing tube diameters in tube-fin heat exchangers and illustrates an approach to design and optimize heat exchangers to meet a wide range of design criteria.

Sinusoidal wavy fins can help enhance heat transfer in plate-fin heat exchangers and thus improve the performance of compact heat exchangers in many different industrial areas like air-conditioning, heating, and waste-heat recovery. Besides increasing the surface area density of the heat exchanger, implementing sinusoidal wavy fins in plate-fin heat exchangers can also augment the convection heat transfer coefficient by generating swirls in the trough regions of the channels. In this study, single-phase, periodically developed, laminar forced convection in sinusoidal wavy-plate-fin channels is considered, with the corrugated plates subjected to uniform wall temperature.

Offset strip fins are used to increase the heat transfer coefficient as well as heat transfer area in compact heat exchangers. The formation and disruption of boundary layer takes place periodically in offset strip fins yielding high heat transfer coefficient, especially near the leading edge of each periodic portion. To characterize these effects, a computational study of flow and heat transfer in offset strip channels is performed. The Reynolds number in the laminar range (10 < Re < 2000) is considered and a range of Prandtl number is considered. A parametric study is also performed.

This study discusses the importance of exergy balance rather than energy balance of a net-zero building with the built environment involving such district connections like heat, cold, service water etc. and presents a simplified degree-hour method and Rational Exergy Management model that enables to calculate the net-exergy feature of any sustainable building in term of exergy exchange between the district and the building.

In this study, an experimental data based exergo-parametric study of hybrid heating systems is carried out. Experiments are conducted in a special test chamber that was constructed and operated according to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 138. Radiant floor heating and convective heating combinations at different splits were investigated for minimum exergy destruction and energy consumption while thermal comfort was maintained. According to the results, optimal radiant system to total system capacity ratio is about 0.6.

The aim of this study is to design a PV panel cooler with heat pipes and to reduce the pumping costs through an optimum design approach using CFD(Computational Fluid Dynamics) techniques. According to CFD analyses, up to 12% of the original power generation capacity can be achieved by the new heat pipe technology. This paper also compares air cooling by finned heat pipes using natural convection and chimney effect. These results however show that technically feasible option is cooling by heat pipes and by generating useful heat if there exists a demand of suitable magnitude and load profile.

Exergy analysis, in addition to energy analysis, enables to study the effects of different operating temperatures on overall system performance. Exergy analysis also enables to compare different forms of energy flows (e.g. electricity vs. thermal) and, therefore, allows a holistic approach to system analysis. This talk outlines the main principles of exergy analysis, shows its applications in the analysis of heating and cooling systems in buildings, and presents results from the comparison of different heating and cooling systems using exergy. Exergy analysis is a powerful tool for improving and optimizing overall system performance.

ASHRAE Standard 205P (Standard Representation of Performance Simulation Data for HVAC&R and Other Facility Equipment) defines data exchange formats that allow detailed equipment performance characteristics to be published by manufacturers and then read by analysis software without human interaction. This will result in standard methods for automated manipulation of performance data in BIM and other tools, increasing both productivity and accuracy. The presentation provides an overview of Standard 205P and include data examples for unitary air conditioners, liquid chillers, and fan assemblies.

This presentation looks at continuous change in chiller performance ratings over the past 30 years. A brief overview of the rating calculation methodology is given and the speaker discusses the changing methods used, expectations and requirements, and formats which have been provided. The development of a standard file type is merely another step in this evolution.

This presentation discusses how the adoption of a standard for equipment data will change the development and use of building simulation programs. From the current situation where the developer must create equipment libraries and detailed instructions for creating new data files for the users, to a next-generation where the software can automatically load new equipment data without the user having to perform any formatting, to a future approach where the data is transmitted between manufacturer and software without any user input.

This presentation explores the impact of Standard 205 on the consulting energy modeling process including a sample case study. This explores how the accurate representation of chiller performance can result in better comparative results and improved consulting ability.

This presentation summarizes the ASHRAE sponsored research used to develop the new duct calculator tool. This includes a brief description of the experiments that were carried out and the results of those experiments.

This presentation covers a brief history of flex duct research at LBNL and TAMU. Data is presented illustrating flex duct performance measurements at various compression levels followed by the averaged data that was used for the duct design tool. Illustrations from ducts installed in residential attics is also presented.

Heat networks can be an effective way of supplying low carbon heat to buildings. Current UK systems are largely based on fossil fuel Combined Heat and Power (CHP). Such systems may likely be unacceptable in the long term, if the levels of decarbonization visualized in the UK are to be attained. Heat networks are best suited to areas with high heat demand density such as big cities. This paper demonstrates that Underground Railways (UR) could be an attractive year round heat source and presents numerical investigations into the interactions between these systems.

Ground source heat pump system can reduce energy consumption and CO2 emission of heating, cooling and hot water supply system in buildings. The capacity of ground heat exchanger is subjected to the restriction of the building or site area and this leads frequently to the situation where the amount of heat supply from ground heat source does not balance the heat demand by whole the building. A heat source water supply network was designed and installed between two actual buildings in Japan.

Ground Source Heat Pumps (GSHP) have significant potential to reduce carbon emissions. The performance of heat pumps is highly dependent on their interaction with the ground and specifically the extraction and injection of the heat. A number of literature reviews has shown how the performance of GSHP systems vary in practice when compared to the theoretical aspects. This paper provides detailed investigative work on heat metering installation difficulties and associated errors which affect the long term practical performance of GSHP systems and identifies a range of installation errors.

This presentation explains why Variable Speed Drives (VSDs) are used in many HVAC applications and how they operate. Explains variable torque vs constant torque loads. Describes the different Variable Speed Drive (VSD) terms commonly used in HVAC applications and defines the acronyms and names commonly used: 
Variable Speed Drive (VSD), Variable Frequency Drive (VFD), Adjustable Frequency Drive (AFD), Adjustable Speed Drive (ASD), Freq Drive Inverter.

Positive displacement chillers, more commonly known as Screw chillers, offer significant energy savings when applied as variable speed chillers. Screw chillers are offered around 550 nominal tons and can be easily incorporated into multiple chiller designs. This seminar segment describes the differences between how variable speed screw chillers and centrifugal chillers operate. An energy analysis demonstrates efficiencies reflecting true building and chiller operating conditions.

Centrifugal chillers are very dependent on operating speed in order to achieve maximum efficiency. Advances in Variable Speed Drive (VSD) technology are enabling optimized operating speeds that improve system efficiency over a broad range of centrifugal chiller applications and operating conditions. This presentation provides technical understanding of how VSD’s work within a chiller system as well as application examples of how that chiller system can be optimized within an HVAC system.

This seminar presentation defines Galvanic Corrosion and what causes this form of corrosion. It also offers insight into distinguishing the modes of degradation in All-Aluminum micro channel heat exchangers.

Condensation and corrosion can be major problems when surfaces are exposed to environmental conditions. Because of geometry it may be difficult to drain condensate, leading to increased corrosion or frosting at lower temperatures. Superhydrophobic (SH) materials can minimize anti-condensation and corrosion. SH coatings can be tailored for micro-channel heat exchangers, fin tube coils, and internally enhanced shell-tube heat exchangers. The impact of SH coatings on heat transfer performance needs to be considered along with the overall energy efficiency improvement resulting from SH coatings. SH coatings can help reduce performance degradation from corrosion by 50% and therefore improve the operational efficiency.

Round tubing is used in non-brazed, mechanically assembled in form of U-Bend hairpins. Aluminum hairpins provide requisite formicary corrosion protection and have the majority market share for indoor application. Outdoor application requires more stringent corrosion protection, smaller diameter tubing and larger coils. This makes applying this tubing in outdoor environment an engineering challenge. Developments in long life 3000 series alloys, hairpin lubrication, processing and coil fabrication may open up a limited outdoor market, and make the indoor market more attractive. Alloy development has focused on refinements/composition that alter failure mode from pitting to general lateral corrosion, increasing tubing’s corrosion performance.

After this presentation, attendees will understand and distinguish the three inter-related design factors that influence corrosion durability of an aluminum heat exchanger. They will also be able to apply fundamental learnings to future HEX designs.

Two types of gas absorption units have been installed in field tests in Germany. A larger capacity unit (140 kBtu/h or 41 kW heating) with 50-100% modulation was installed with an auxiliary boiler in a school building to replace a 150 kW boiler. In addition, smaller (61 kBtu/h or 18 kW heating) units were installed for residential applications, without auxiliary boilers. The measured savings over the baseline boiler systems have been up to 40%. This seminar describes the system layouts and how the savings were achieved.

Several prototype ammonia/water absorption water heating units, aimed at the residential water heating market, have been recently evaluated. Field tests as well as laboratory reliability evaluations were conducted. Energy factors significantly higher than 1 were observed in a variety of installations. Analysis of these results and lessons learned are discussed in this seminar.

Proper equipment testing standards give consumers confidence, reduce uncertainty for manufacturers, and enable utilities to offer incentives for more efficient products. Besides these goals, a standard should not be too burdensome to conduct. This seminar describes the unique characteristics of gas heat pumps and how those relate to standards. Attendees will gain a better understanding of how gas heat pumps operate and can be applied.

For the first time, sorption heat pump units were subjected to round-robin testing at two different laboratories. Testing was conducted according to existing European standard EN12309 and German standard VDI 4650. In order to inform ongoing standards development, the team identified recommendation to address challenges with measurement of low part loads, as well as how to minimize testing burden while achieving a seasonal efficiency rating.

The air cooled packaged chiller is a very popular choice for HVAC designers in capacities up to and slightly above 1,900 kW (550 tons). Until recently, the only compressor types commonly available in air cooled packaged chillers across that entire range were of the positive displacement type. By contrast, for nearly 100 years, the efficiency and other inherent advantages of centrifugal compressors have made them a popular compressor choice in water cooled packaged chillers with capacities as low as 350 kW (100 tons). This article explores the history of centrifugal compressors when applied in air cooled chiller systems.

Although counter intuitive, using a heat pipe air-to-air heat exchanger in summer for both sensible cooling (Indirect) and adiabatic cooling and humidification (Direct) of the outdoor air in an arid climate can reduce peak refrigeration tonnage while exceeding Standard 62.1 outdoor air ventilation for a Natatorium. Heat recovery in cold ambient conditions allows the system to exceed minimum code outdoor air flow requirements into the Natatorium to dilute and remove Chloramines and maintain a better Indoor Air Quality ( IAQ) in the pool enclosure without additional heating costs. This case study analyzes the Aquatic Center project installed in Dublin, California.

This conference paper explores the ever-changing dynamic of air-cooled versus water-cooled systems. While water-cooled systems still often reduce the building energy use, there have been dramatic improvements in air-cooled chiller performance. There is increasing concern with fresh water scarcity as we acknowledge the cost and energy consumption required at desalination and water treatment plants. And there’s major growth of renewable power generation in the grid energy mix which affects both the process water use and greenhouse gas emissions. The market’s demand for sustainability, energy efficiency, and water efficiency must be weighed carefully as competing interests continue to evolve over the next decade.

Roof top equipment is often concealed for aesthetics reasons, by a solid or louvered parapet walls aka “Architectural Screens”. This results in inefficient dispersion of exhaust air and reduces the thermal efficiency of the equipment inside the screens. This work estimates excess energy used at an 8000 tons district cooling plants when cooling tower fan operates at higher speeds to compensate for the entrainment and recirculation of exhaust air caused by architectural walls around a cooling tower. Air properties for two locations: 1) inside the walls near the cooling tower and 2) away from it, outside the walls were monitored and analyzed.

There are nearly 60 thousand Mosques spread across the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, consuming nearly 3 Terawatt-Hour of site electrical energy, 70% of which is due to the use of mostly inefficient HVAC systems. It is estimated that 20 million M³ of expensively treated water used annually for ablution, 50% of which flows directly to the drain without any contamination. This paper evaluates the potential savings in water and energy of reusing ablution water to run mosque Air-Conditioning systems using high efficiency IDEC technology.

Fan systems can be configured with a wide variety of options. The number of combinations and the lack of scaling laws makes testing and rating of fan system energy performance an impractical task. While estimates can be made using component peak efficiencies, these calculations are often applied inconsistently or without part load performance. Method to standardize the calculations under general operating conditions is presented which applies to fan systems containing any combination of regulated poly-phase induction motors, v-belt transmissions, and pulse-width modulated variable frequency drives. This presentation provides detailed review of the underlying assumptions, the calculation procedure, and examples of those calculations. 

Wire-to-air fan efficiency depends on individual component efficiencies of the fan, motor, V-belt drive, and VFD. The efficiency of each of these components can be evaluated at full rated load as well as at part loads encountered in VAV systems. Tests were conducted and results will be presented for these components including multiple sizes at various loads. These component efficiencies are also compared with the measured overall fan efficiency.

This presentation examines the scope of Guideline 36 and the research agenda that will fuel its content over the near term. He will also address the integration of Guidline 36 with Guideline 13..

Discuss aspects of Fault Detection and Diagnostics and how SGPC 13 is moving towards providing guidance and references for the specifier to adopt the technology in their automation projects.

Discuss views on how buildings can, should, and will be more secure and where the convergence of access and risk align for Cyber Security and how SGPC 13 is moving towards providing guidance and references for the specifier to adopt the technologies in their automation projects.

High solar reflectivity roof membranes have been a focal point of energy saving efforts in building design. These efforts have been codified in the International Code Council (ICC) International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) and the American Society of Heating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHAE) Standard 90.1 Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings. In both of these texts prescriptive aged and or initial roof membrane solar reflectivity is specified. This paper reports the numerical findings of this study, examines causation for the differential levels solar reflectivity values discovered and proposes guidelines for roof membrane solar reflectivity used for design and modeling.

As HVAC systems advance to meet the energy savings goals, their control system becomes increasingly complicated. In order to optimize the operation of a control system, the ideal combination of its parameters need to be realized, aiming at providing an acceptable indoor environment as defined by the standards and at the same time reducing the energy use as much as possible. In this simulation study, the coupling of solar panels with Phase Change Material (PCM) ceiling panels for cooling an office room was examined during the cooling season of Copenhagen (Denmark) by means of dynamic simulations.

Building integrated photovoltaic/thermal (BIPV/T) system provides sustainable solution in design structure as part of the building envelop. A mathematical model was developed for transparent and opaque BIPV/T collector, (TBIPV/T) and (BIPV/T). Both models were implemented in TRNSYS to conduct comparative study. A single zone house was modeled in TRNSYS to conduct a case study to evaluate the performance of each collectors. Comparative studies were performed between both systems, each integrated into the façade and roof of the house for two locations in Canada.

This article proves that the use of Fan Law Equations to calculate changes in air flow and pressure lead to significant errors in cases where air handling units have considerable internal resistance. It also demonstrates methodologies for a more accurate calculation of fan system parameters.

The work was completed under ASHRAE Research Project 1467-RP Balancing Latent Heat Load between Display Cases and Store Comfort Cooling. The overall objective is to provide a comprehensive assessment of the potential for energy savings in supermarkets by optimized design and operation of the combined HVAC and refrigeration systems. The research addresses the impact of supermarket design, HVAC and refrigeration system design, temperature and humidity setpoints, and store location. The study uses EnergyPlus as the simulation tool for modeling supermarkets, and generally found good agreement with both measured results and expected outcomes on an individual variable level.

The primary objective of the 1609 research project was to formally specify information exchange use cases for O&M work processes based on existing ASHRAE publications. Four use cases were developed from Guideline 4, Standard 180, Service Life and Maintenance Cost database, and Standard 105. A fifth combined use case, focused on asset management. A User Guide was written to help practitioners implement a practical asset management program. These products can be adopted by O&M professionals to bring Building Information Modeling (BIM) techniques into their practice and increase ASHRAE involvement in adopting BIM technologies to support its members’ work processes.

One of the critical tasks of the International Energy Agency’s Energy Conservation in Buildings and Communities (IEC ECBC) Program’s Annex 61 “Business and Technical Concepts for Deep Energy Retrofit (DER) of Public Buildings” is to develop bundles of core technologies (measures), which, when applied in major renovation projects to older (pre-1980) buildings, allow site energy reduction by 50% or better compared to the pre-renovation baseline. This paper shows that application of a core technologies bundle to dining facilities, which have high process loads and ventilation requirements, significantly improves energy use in the building compared to the typical renovation scenario.

Presidio of Monterey, host to the military’s premier language training institute, faces the same challenges as other Army bases in managing its aging building stock. This paper demonstrates the acquisitions strategies employed and field lessons learned in an attempt to better guide prospective DER project stakeholders. This project employed a regimented process to its various contracting phases with some strategic augmentation to support the DER method that are transferrable to similar retrofit efforts. There have also been many process-based and technical takeaways that can be used to bolster future DER work at Presidio, in the Army, and throughout the sustainability industry.

Deep energy retrofits can supercharge our transition to a clean energy future without relying on radical technologies or untested methods. Buildings are the largest energy-consuming sector in the United States and 80% of existing buildings today will likely remain in operation by 2030, making existing building retrofits essential to national and global energy and carbon reduction strategies. There are three main funding mechanisms to deliver deep energy retrofits to federal facilities: congressionally appropriated funding, performance contracting, including commonly used energy savings performance contracts (ESPCs) and a combined funding model blending appropriations with ESPC. This paper focuses on ESPCs and the emerging combined funding model.

In this study, heat transfer coefficients for radiant floor heating systems were investigated in a special test chamber that is one of the very first implementation of the ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 138 in the world. Radiant systems offer high energy and exergy efficient sensible heating and cooling potential. These systems can be directly coupled with low enthalpy, renewable or waste heat resources. Heat transfer coefficients are important design parameters for radiant systems that effects the heat transfer capacity of the heated/cooled surface to indoor. In this study, radiant, convective and total heat transfer coefficients for radiant floor heating are investigated experimentally.

As Semi-Transparent Photovoltaic (STPV) windows are advancing within the building and window industry, the need for deeper understanding and quantification of key performance parameters such as the solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC), operating temperature profile and electrical power output is required. This study proposes an experimental methodology suited to the determination of the SHGC of STPV windows. The methodology presented utilizes an indoor solar simulator and calorimeter facility. A SHGC reduction from 2% to 20% was estimated, when the STPV windows were tested with no-load and with load applied at maximum power point.

The study describes an experimental and simulation study to estimate load handling capacity and thermal performance of radiant cooling system installed in existing building in India. To evaluate thermal performance and capacity, experiments are conducted and simulations were carried out using EnergyPlus tool. Building model was calibrated using the experimental results and a parametric analysis at different operating condition has been done on calibrated model. The results are validated by evaluating the characteristic performance exponent (nco’’) given in ASHRAE Standard 138.

A solar collector cum regenerator (C/R) is a key component of a liquid desiccant air cooling system that concentrates liquid desiccant flowing over its absorber surface. Simultaneous collection of solar energy and evaporation of water occurs as the solution flows over the absorber surface of the solar C/R being exposed to the ambient air throughout sunshine period. This paper discusses the use of a single solution tank for regeneration of liquid desiccants (LiCl and CaCl2 solutions) using a solar C/R of absorber area 4.0 m2 using experimentally collected data sets in a day (9am up to 4 pm) across seasons.

The present study focused on the effect of supply air temperature on air distribution in a room with floor heating (FH) or ceiling heating (CH) and mixing ventilation (MV) or displacement ventilation (DV). The vertical distribution of air temperature and velocity in the occupied zone and the horizontal distribution of containment concentration in the breathing zone were measured as the supply air temperature ranged from 15.0℃ to 19.0℃. The results showed that the vertical air temperature differences were less than 0.3℃ with FH+MV or CH+MV and between 1.9℃ and 4.2℃ with FH+DV or CH+DV. The turbulence intensity varied from 12.5% to 15.5% with FH+MV or CH+MV, and from 6.0% to 10.8% with FH+DV or CH+DV. The air distribution effectiveness was close to 1.0 with FH+MV or CH+MV, and between 1.06 and 1.16 with FH+DV or CH+DV. The results in this paper are relevant to the design and control of the hybrid systems with radiant heating systems and mechanical ventilation systems.

Many organizations take pride in improving the energy efficiency of their buildings through certifications such as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). However, due to limited accountability for energy consumption on a building level, particularly after some period of operation, LEED certification may not necessarily translate into efficient building operation in the long run. This paper details an energy analysis and a building energy simulation of a LEED Silver dining hall which was diagnosed with poor energy efficiency performance and appeared among Facilities Management list of buildings that needed prompt attention on the University of Maryland’s (UMD) campus.

Laboratory facilities remain expensive to operate because of the extraordinary volume of once-through exhaust air required by chemical fume hoods. Traditionally, laboratory fume hood operation is perceived as a laminar flow process to capture and contain contaminants inside the hood, and relies on face velocity to establish the volume of air required when the hood is in use. Conversely, vortex fume hood operation is understood as a dilution process that utilizes turbulence to dissolve and contain contaminants in the air stream and employs air changes per minute to establish the volume of air that passes through the hood.

The phase-out of hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants in developing countries is currently under way according to the Montreal Protocol. R-22 is one of the most commonly used HCFCs in the developing nations. It is extremely well suited for air conditioning and refrigeration (AC&R) in high ambient temperature environments. Non-Article 5 countries have already gone through the phase-out of HCFCs and settled on using R-410A as the refrigerant of choice for AC applications. Previous studies have shown that R-410A results in significant capacity and performance degradation at higher ambient temperature conditions. There is a growing concern about finding alternative refrigerants to R-22 that would have zero ozone depletion potential (ODP), lower global warming potential (GWP), and at the same time maintain acceptable performance at higher ambient temperatures. Furthermore, the developed world’s transition through higher GWP refrigerants such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and HFC blends resulted in significant direct CO2 equivalent emissions. It is imperative to develop a bridge for developing nations to avoid the transition from HCFC to HFC and then from HFC to alternative lower GWP refrigerants. This paper summarizes data from an experimental campaign on alternative refrigerant evaluation for R-22 and R-410A substitutes for mini-split air conditioners designed for high ambient temperature environments. The experimental evaluation was performed according to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 37, and the performance was rated at test conditions specified by ANSI/AHRI 210-240 and ISO 5151.

Variable speed heat pump systems offer capabilities for advanced control strategies that coordinate the operation of compressor, valve and fans to maximize efficiency while tracking changing heating and cooling loads. However, advanced multivariable controllers can be more complex to design, implement and troubleshoot. This paper presents energy optimal coordinated control strategies, with varying levels of complexity, ranging from decoupled PID control to Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) multivariable control. The advantages and disadvantages of the three strategies are analyzed and compared in simulation and experiment.

Frosting in air-to-air energy exchangers is a common problem when the outdoor air temperature is very low. Membrane-based air-to-air energy exchangers which are capable of moisture transfer as well as sensible heat transfer may assist in overcoming frosting. To understand the effect of water vapor transfer on frosting, laboratory experiments are conducted to investigate the frosting conditions for two geometrically identical air-to-air cross-flow plate exchangers. One exchanger is made with a water vapor permeable membrane (energy exchanger), while the other exchanger is made with an impermeable polymer film with similar thickness (heat exchanger).

This paper discusses strategies to improve the cost efficiency of DER. In most cases a DER is started with a general refurbishment which covers all major non energy related investments and the investments to accomplish the minimum energy requirement for the building stock. The cost efficiency for any measure beyond the minimum energy requirements will be accomplished by accounting the energy savings in pay back periods of less of half of the average life cycle of the building; this might be acceptable for the public sector but will find no large acceptance in the commercial sector.

Fossil fuels including petroleum, coal and natural gas are being currently used as energy sources resulting in global warming. Energy consumed by buildings accounts for about 40% of the total energy consumption. Further, heat losses through windows inside buildings account for 20-40% of cooling and heating loads. In addition, various studies on energy saving are being carried out. In the present study, tightness of windows has been analyzed according to KS F 2292 by using sliding and high-performing lift sliding windows. Further, TRNSYS17 has been used to analyze infiltration and heating load with respect to lock operation and location.

Due to high installation costs and space limitations, airflow measurements with physical meters in air handling units are not adequate or/and accurate for energy efficient operations. Virtual airflow sensors that calculate airflow rate based on measurable operational data using fan curves provide a promising alternative. However, in-situ fan curves, rather than the manufacturer’s fan curves, are needed for accurate airflow calculations. This paper explores a comprehensive procedure for accurate in-situ fan curve calibration in variable air volume (VAV) systems by addressing three technical challenges.

As the energy efficiency industry evolves more complex efficiency projects, such as chilled water system upgrades, are being implemented. This is due to both the completion of simpler efficiency projects on many sites and the large room for efficiency improvements in chilled water systems that are custom designed for each application and site. In most cases owners prefer third-party measurement and verification (M&V) of the efficiency projects. Additionally, electrical utilities see benefits in incentivizing and claiming energy efficiency projects. This paper discusses the different available methodologies and their limitations.

Energy models are commonly used to examine the multitude of pathways to achieve high-performance buildings. As presently practiced, a deterministic approach is used to evaluate incremental design improvements to achieve performance targets. However, significant insight can be gained by examining the implications of modelling assumptions using a probabilistic approach. This paper describes a reproducible methodology which aids modelers in identifying energy and economic uncertainties due to variabilities in solar exposure. This approach improves modelling outcomes by factoring in the effect of variability in assumptions and improves confidence in simulation results.

Due to the rapid development of the engineering technology and the improvement of the living environment, the application scope of the fluid machines are becoming more various. In this study a comparative study on some representative anemometers and flow meters, which are used at the local sites, is conducted. It is intended to suggest a new kind of portable flow meter that supplements the existing restriction. Also in this study, an experiment comparing a mass flow meter is conducted in order to confirm the accuracy of the performance of the multi-nozzle testing apparatus conforming to ANSI/ASHRAE 51-1999.

Air conditioning in buildings that house moisture sensitive products like libraries, museums, and supermarkets etc. needs strict control of humidity. The sensible heat ratio in many such applications tend to be low and energy intensive conventional means of humidity control using electrical/gas fired heaters is not finding favor with designers and ASHRAE. Various alternative ways to avoid reheating include Desiccant Rotor System, Plate to Plate Heat Exchanger, Glycol based run around coil, Heat Pipe based Heat Exchanger (HPHE) etc. This paper presents the development of a U- shaped HPHE starting from fabrication of heat pipes to their assembly in tube fin type heat exchanger.

Increasing residential air-conditioning demand and the growing number of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems installed in the residential sector have increased electrical net energy demand fluctuation. These severe fluctuations lead to a need for flexible generation capacities that can rapidly meet the fluctuating demands. To combat these fluctuations, utility companies have introduced different price plans to financially incentivize customers to reduce their demand during certain hours of the day, making residential electricity demand constant (or “flat”) for the daytime hours. This paper explores the feasibility of coupling precooling with PV to achieve “flat” residential net demand in three Phoenix, Arizona homes.

Motor-driven pumps recirculate chilled water and hot water in heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems. The purpose of this paper is to develop an optimal pump sequencing control with improved water-wire efficiency model. First, the wire-to-water efficiency of VFD-motor-pump systems is improved by applying a motor equivalent circuit method to calculate the motor efficiency at variable frequency, and then the wire-to-water efficiency is simulated and applied to develop the optimal operating regions for a secondary chilled water system with three parallel pumps.

This paper investigates the impacts of a wireless heating management system for electrical baseboard heaters in two bulk-metered apartment buildings located in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. A tenant survey was conducted one year after the initial installation to study the thermal comfort impact of this system. Overall this system has produced promising energy and cost reductions as much as 33% with little negative impact in tenants’ overall thermal comfort during the heating seasons. However, the authors still caution the installation of similar systems and feasibility studies should be performed to determine the suitability of such systems.

Recently the majority of multi-family residential buildings have satisfied the ventilation requirements of the dwelling units via natural ventilation and have not provided an additional means of mechanical ventilation. Changes to ASHRAE Standard 62.1 and the adoption of those changes into local codes require multi-family dwelling units to be mechanically ventilated. This paper evaluates systems and equipment available to meet the code mandated mechanical ventilation requirements and discusses the impacts of the selection on the building. Areas of impact evaluated are building aesthetics, capital cost, annual energy cost, utility billing structure, building space requirements, systems and equipment maintenance and green construction rating impact.

The optimization of energy efficient housing is a highly complex problem involving hundreds of parameters due to the many options that exist at the time that a building is being designed. To perform the optimization in an acceptable time frame, singular value decomposition is used to reduce the number of design variables by identifying those that contribute most strongly to the optimization problem. A case study of residential buildings in six separate locations across the U.S. is performed and the results are discussed.

Recent official statistics have shown that Saudi Arabia electricity consumption growth rate at 7%. Buildings primary energy consumption and electricity consumption are 23% and 80%, respectively. This trend of high energy consumption is expected to rise in the upcoming few years. According to governmental statistics, 70% of the buildings in Saudi are not insulated. Furthermore, most of the air-conditioners in existing buildings were installed before enforcing minimum performance standards on air-conditioners. In this paper, an uninsulated existing residential building model was developed and validated against utility data.

Variable capacity technology is a core feature in high efficiency air conditioners available in the residential, ducted market. Residential variable capacity air conditioners are available in a range of Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratios (SEER), exceeding the federal minimum levels. Energy efficiency program implementers seek to understand the efficiency impact of variable capacity systems for their climates and applications. Program implementers seek guidance on structuring their programs based on available industry ratings. This report examines the performance of three variable capacity systems of varying SEER over a range of real-world operating conditions, away from the current standard testing conditions for SEER.

Annual energy consumption of a 1200 square foot residential home was modeled using four energy modeling programs: CBECC-Res, BEopt, EnergyPro, and REM/Rate. A baseline house was developed that met California Title 24 Standards, and both slab and crawlspace foundations were considered. The baseline house was additionally modified to have non-compliant (lower-efficiency) inputs, as well as advanced-efficiency inputs, for parameters including insulation, window properties, HVAC system efficiencies and air infiltration. For given set of inputs, the four models produced significant variations in calculated annual electricity and natural gas consumption with differences as high as +/- 50%.

Vapor and combustion by-products combine to create highly acidic condensate. This restricts the types of metal used in condensing appliances for hydronic heating. Prior practice was to use building location, lighting design and other factors and 20°F ΔT calculations for designing hydronic heating systems. This led to systems designed for worst case scenarios, resulting in overcapacity and wasted energy. With the emphasis on Green design, systems should and can be designed to building load. New technology in controls, segmented systems and lead lag capability allow systems to only use the energy needed, to provide the appropriate amount of heat.

The more industrial boilers are used, the more potential for corrosion exists, resulting in shortened appliance life. An extremely effective method for reducing corrosion is water treatment. This presentation covers the typical metals found in boiler systems, system operation, corrosion causes and effects, focusing on the effects of corrosion on hydronic heating systems. Systems with and without water treatment through conventional and green corrosion inhibitors are examined along with options for maintaining system efficiency.

This presentation covers venting requirements for high efficiency hydronic heating systems, including venting basics as well as special gas venting systems for Category II, III & IV. Appliance manufacturer’s requirements and proper system design will be discussed along with Code Compliance with National Fuel Gas Code and design Criteria for NFGC Compliance. Proper system design is examined with pressure drop and draft calculations as well as the results of inadequate draft and over draft control. Finally, proper application of design is reviewed as it pertains to high efficiency, condensing hydronic heating systems.

The commissioning process for a central chiller plant includes full analysis of the plant's chilled water and condenser water pumps. This includes a verification of pump capacities and proper installation, plus confirming they are started, tested, and balanced for design operating condition. This presentation includes the steps needed to ensure the pumps are fully commissioned to meet the Owner's Project Requirements and perform as designed.

The commissioning process for a central chiller plant includes full analysis of the plant's condensing water cooling tower. This includes a verification of unit capacity and proper installation, plus confirming it is started, tested, and balanced for design operating condition. This presentation includes the steps needed to ensure the cooling tower is fully commissioned to meet the Owner's Project Requirements and perform as designed.

The commissioning process for a central chiller plant includes full analysis of the plant's fluid chilling unit. This includes a verification of unit capacity and proper installation, plus confirming it is started, tested, and balanced for design operating condition. This presentation includes the steps needed to ensure the fluid chiller is fully commissioned to meet the Owner's Project Requirements and perform as designed.

This Project is a wooden office building in the forest at the foot of Yatsugatake. The client spent over a decade selecting this suitable site to ensure symbiosis with nature. An “energy-saving system” using passive methods (natural ventilation, direct solar gain, natural lighting), an “energy-making system” comprising a heat and power generator using renewable energy (solar power, wooden biomass resources) and a micro-grid system with a lithium-ion rechargeable battery are adopted to achieve ZEB. This building has been properly operated by environmentally conscious staff and has achieved a year-round PEB (Positive Energy Building).

VRF systems are touted for their superior part-load performance compared to conventional HVAC systems. This study compares both the full and part-load performance of a VRF system with a conventional RTU VAV (rooftop variable air volume) system in a multi-zone office building with emulated occupancy. During the study period starting July 2015 through February 2016, each system was operated alternately under each of the three load conditions for 2-3 days, and the system parameters, indoor and outdoor conditions, loads, and energy use were monitored. The performance of the two systems is compared in terms of weather-normalized HVAC energy consumption.

Water-based air conditioning system has attracted increasing attention because of their smaller charge amount of refrigerant which is supposed to cause global warming. It is widely used for such as chiller, and there are more requirements for higher efficiency and improvements in workability in building use. This paper discusses the outline of HVRF and explains the refrigerant and water flow. HVRF enables free selection of a cooling mode or a heating mode in each indoor unit. It also discusses the coupled simulation of refrigerant circuit and water circuit.

Europe, with a building stock responsible for about 40% of the total energy use, needs to reduce the primary energy consumption in buildings in order to meet the 2020 energy targets of the European Union. High temperature cooling and low temperature heating systems, and as an example, Thermally Activated Building Systems (TABS), have proven to be an energy-efficient solution to provide buildings with an optimal indoor thermal environment. This study focuses on quantifying the impact of two types of free hanging ceiling absorbers (horizontal and vertical), on the cooling performance of the TABS and the implications this has on the occupants´ thermal comfort.

This paper presents a first-order physics based model which reasonably accounts for the fundamental heat and mass transfer of vapor from humid air feed side to permeate side. This model comprises two membrane mass transfer submodels (i.e. microstructure model and performance map model); moreover, we adopt a segment-by-segment methodology for discretizing heat and mass transfer governing equations. The reported model is capable of simulating both dehumidifiers and energy recovery ventilators with cross-flow, counter-flow and parallel-flow. The model has been validated with measurements of a working device.

In this study, development of a novel system for combined water heating, dehumidification, and space cooling is discussed. This system benefits from multiple technologies developed in Nanostructure Energy System Laboratories at the University of Florida. The membrane-based absorption technology utilized in the system confines the absorbent to alleviate the liquid entrainment issue encountered in the conventional packed bed absorbers. The ionic liquid utilized in the system alleviates the crystallization issue and widens the cycle operating temperature conditions. This system collects the space sensible and latent heats from an air stream and transfer them to hot water.

A 25 ton solar thermal heat pump/chiller (STHP/C) has been commissioned at a hotel in Desert Palm Springs, California. Thermal heat pumps are powered by heat vs electricity. They deliver good energy and cost savings even when powered by natural gas. With renewable heat, and when chilling is co-produced, the savings increase dramatically. This STHP/C is powered by 500,000 BTU/hour of 250°F heat from a solar thermal collector. A backup natural gas heater enables 24/7 operation. The domestic hot water heating is 800,000 BTU/hour at 130°F. The chilling co-product is 25 tons at 44°F.

Use of absorption equipment has gained momentum in the HVAC industry due to improvements in the technology and versatility of new equipment and the recent drop in utility rates. Absorption chillers are almost always used where there is high grade waste heat such as in cogeneration systems. But is it feasible to use direct fired absorbers with current energy prices? This study presents economic performance of absorption technology with respect to the type of equipment, application, geographical location and cost of utilities.